Columbia  ©nitiem'tj) 

THE  LIBRARIES 


Hief  OBY  B?  R< 


AN  OUTLINE 

OF  THE 

HISTORY  OF  THE 

INTELLECTUAL  CLASS 

IN  WESTERN  EUROPE 

BY 

JAMES  HARVEY  EOBINSON 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  IN  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


No  man  hath  propounded  to  himself  the  general 
state  of  learning  to  be  described  and  repre- 
sented from  age  to  age,  as  many  have  done 
the  works  of  nature,  and  the  state  civil  and 
ecclesiastical ;  without  which  the  history  of 
the  world  seemeth  to  me  to  be  as  the  statua 
of  Polyphemus  with  his  eye  out. 

Bacon,  'AHviiKcemtn*  cfltearhiag,  "Sk.  11,  i,  2. 


THIRD  •ED'Ifl'JON,  BEVISED 


NEW  YORK 
1915 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

This  outline  of  Intellectual  History  is  designed  first  and 
foremost  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  course  of  lectures 
offered  in  this  field  to  graduate  and  advanced  undergraduate 
students  in  the  School  of  Political  Science  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. Should  it  fall  into  the  hands  of  others  than  those 
for  whom  it  is  primarily  intended  they  should  recollect  that 
the  selection  and  ordering  of  the  historical  facts  which  it  con- 
tains may  appear  more  arbitrary  than  they  do  when  they  are 
explained  in  class.  At  no  very  distant  date  the  author  hopes 
to  complete  a  manual  of  which  this  preliminary  outline  is  the 
harbinger. 

The  bibliographies  demand  a  word  of  explanation.  They 
are  adapted  to  the  specific  purpose  in  hand — namely,  to  illus- 
trate the  general  trend  of  knowledge  and  speculation  among 
educated  people  in  the  past.  They  make  no  pretence  to  be 
adequate  lists  of  works  relating  to  the  various  fields  of  inten- 
sive scholarship  upon  which  it  is  necessary  to  encroach,  such 
as  Greek  philosophy,  the  history  of  the  Jews,  the  origin  of 
Christianity,  Scholasticism,  Humanism,  the  Protestant  Re- 
volt, or  the  development  of  the  modern  sciences.  From  the 
vast  literature  that  exists  upon  each  of  these  subjects  those 
few  works  have  been  chosen,  in  consultation  with  experts  in 
the  respective  fields,  which  give  in  a  clear,  compact  and  au- 
thentic form  those  large  considerations  with  which  the  course 
deals. 

The  treatises  relating  specifically  to  the  history  of  thought, 
at  least  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  here  used,  are  few  in  number, 
and  none  of  them  attempts  to  follow  the  lines  suggested  in  this 
outline.  In  addition  to  the  histories  of  philosophy,  literature 
and  education,  which  have  other  aims  than  the  present  under- 
taking, there  are  the  works  of  Lecky,  Andrew  D.  White,  Leslie 
Stephen,  J.  M.  Robertson,  Henry  O.  Taylor,  Benn,  Merz  and 
others,  covering  portions  of  the  field  from  special  standpoints. 


iv  Prefatory  Note 

These  are  cited  in  their  appropriate  places,  but  in  general,  as 
has  been  implied,  the  student  who  desires  a  review  of  the  whole 
subject  must  seek  his  materials  where  he  can  find  them  —  they 
are  not  yet  collected  and  digested  for  him  in  any  convenient 
manual.  An  asterisk  has  been  placed  before  those  titles  in  the 
bibliographies  which  recommend  themselves  especially  for  the 
purposes  of  the  course. 

It  has  not  been  deemed  necessary  to  refer  in  every  instance 
to  the  valuable  special  articles  to  be  found  in  encyclopaedias, 
the  most  useful  of  which,  in  addition  to  the  eleventh  edition 
of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  are  The  New  Schaff-Rerzog 
Encyclopedia  of  Beligious  Knowledge  (1908  sqq.,  in  12  vols.) 
edited  by  S.  M.  Jackson  and  based  upon  the  third  edition  of 
the  Bealencyclopddie  fur  protestantische  Theologie  (1896-1909, 
22  vols.) ;  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  (1907  sqq.,  16  vols) ;  The 
Jewish  Encyclopedia  (1901-06  in  12  vols.);  Encyclopedia  of  Re- 
ligion and  Ethics  edited  by  James  Hastings  (1908  sqq.,  in  slow 
process  of  publication) ;  the  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  edited  by 
Paul  Monroe  (1910  sqq.) ;  and  La  Orande  Encyclopedic  (31  vols., 
1885-1903).  The  Columbia  University  Press  is  planning  to 
publish  a  very  valuable  collection  of  historical  sources.  Records 
of  Cimlization,  edited  by  Professor  James  T.  Shotwell.  Several 
volumes  are  announced  to  appear  during  the  coming  year.  It 
is  now  the  custom  in  the  more  scholarly  encyclopaedias  to  fur- 
nish bibliographies,  which  are  sometimes  very  excellent  indeed. 
In  this  way  and  by  means  of  the  references  in  the  works  men- 
tioned in  the  syllabus  it  will  be  possible  for  the  more  earnest 
and  enterprising  student  to  proceed  as  far  as  he  has  the 
patience  to  go  in  carrying  out  any  particular  line  of  study. 
It  has  not  been  thought  worth  while  to  cite  articles  in  periodi- 
cals, although  now  and  then  the  more  technical  historical  and 
philosophical  journals  make  interesting  contributions  to  the 
history  of  thought. 

J.  H.  R. 

Columbia  University, 
October,  1915. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  I.     THE  BACKGROUND  OF  INTELLECTUAL  HISTORY. 

Section    1.  Scope  and  Aims  of  Intellectual  History        ...  1 

2.  Man's  uneducated  Mind 2 

3.  The  Antiquity  of  Man 3 

4.  Primitive  Reasoning  of  Man  :     General  Perspective  of 

Intellectual  Development  ......       3 

PART  II.  HELLENISM  AND  ITS  TRANSMISSION  TO  THE 
ROMAN   EMPIRE. 

Section    5.     Intellectual  Debt  of  Europe  to  Egypt  and  Assyria        .       5 

6.  Beginnings  of    Philosophic    Speculation   among    the 

Greeks        .........       5 

7.  The  Sophists :    Socrates  and  Plato        ....       6 

8.  Aristotle  and  his  Supreme  Place  in  the  History  of 

European  Thought 7 

9.  The  Four  Main  Schools  of  Greek  Thought :  Stoics  and 

Epicureans 8 

10.  Transfer  of  the  Intellectual  Hegemony  to  Alexandria : 

the  Hellenistic  Period        ......  9 

11.  How  Hellenism  was  Transmitted  to  the  Romans          .  10 

12.  Cicero's  Role  in  transferring  Greek  Thought  into  Latin  10 

13.  Decline  and  Disappearance  of  Hellenism  in  Western 

Europe 11 

PART  HI.  FORMATION  IN  THE  LATER  ROMAN  EMPIRE  OF 
THE  INTELLECTUAL  HERITAGE  OF  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES. 

Section  14.     How  Christian  Literature  largely  supplanted  that  of 

Greece  and  Rome 13 

15.  "The  Christian  Epic":     Syncretism:     The  Place  of 

Religion  in  the  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class   .     13 

16.  The   General    Religious    Disposition   in   the    Roman 

Empire:    Neoplatonism 14 

17.  Persian  Syncretism :     Mithraism :    Manichaeism  .     15 

18.  How  Judaism  became  the  Backgroiind  of  the  Religion 

of  Europe :     The  Hebrew  Bible        .         .        .         .16 


VI 


Table  of  Contents 


19.  How  the  New  Testament  became  a  part  of  the  Intel- 

lectual Heritage  of  Europe 18 

20.  How   the    Catholic   Church    became   the   Intellectual 

Arbiter  of  Western  Europe 18 

21.  Asceticism  and  the  Monastic  Life         .         .         .         .19 

22.  Summary  of  the  Views  of  Man  and  the  World  Trans- 

mitted by  the  Later  Eoman  Empire  to  Posterity     .     20 

23.  Intellectual  Stagnation  of  the  Early  Middle  Ages        .     22 


PART  IV.  RISE  OF  THE  MEDIAEVAL  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
THE  PREVAILING  OF  A  MEDIAEVALIZED 
ARISTOTLE. 


Section  24. 

25. 
26. 
27. 

28. 

29. 


Abelard  and  the  Development  of  Theology  into  a  sub- 
ject of  Systematic  Instruction  ..... 

Revival  of  the  Study  of  Law  :     Medicine     . 

The  Origin  of  the  Mediaeval  Universities     . 

How  Aristotle's  Works  in  Latin  Translations  became 
the  Basis  of  Instruction  in  the  Arts  Course 

Nature  and  Scope  of  University  Instruction  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century:     Scholasticism 

Astrology  and  Alchemy         ...... 


24 
24 
25 

26 

27 
29 


PART  V.     SLOW  UNDERMINING  OF  THE  SCHOLASTIC  SYSTEM 
(FROM  ROGER  BACON  TO  LORD  BACON). 

Section  30.     Excursus  on  the  Question  of  Dividing  the  Past  into 

Periods 30 

31.  Discoveries  of  the  Thirteenth  Century:    Beginnings  of 

Experimental  Science :     Roger  Bacon       .         .         .30 

32.  Beginnings  of  Criticism  of  Social  Institutions  :     Peter 

Dubois  and  Marsiglio  of  Padua  .         .         .         .31 

33.  Dante  and  his  World 32 

34.  Petrarch  and  Humanism       ......     32 

35.  Italian  Scholarship  in  the  Fifteenth  Century         .         .     33 

36.  The  Making  of  Books  before  the  Invention  of  Printing     35 

37.  The  Invention  of  Printing  and  its  Effects     .         .         .35 

38.  Spread  of  Humanism  beyond  the  Alps,  especially  into 

Germany    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     36 

39.  Erasmus,  the  Embodiment  of  Humanistic  Enlighten- 

ment .........     37 

40.  General  Nature  of  the  Protestant  Revolt      .         .         .38 

41.  Relation  of  the  Protestant  Revolt  to  Intellectual  Pro- 

gress .........     39 

42.  Witchcraft  and  the  Superstitions  underlying  it    .         .39 


Table  of  Contents  vii 

Page 
PART  VI.     BIRTH  OF  THE  MODERN  SCIENTiriC  SPIRIT. 

Section  43.     Discovery  of  the  Vastness  and  Order  of  the  Universe  .  41 

44.  Exploration  of  the  Earth 42 

45.  Montaigne  and  his  Perception  of  the  Varied  Interest 

of  the  Purely  Human         ......  42 

46.  Francis  Bacon  and  the  "Kingdom  of  Man"          .         .  43 

47.  Descartes  and  the  New  Philosophy       .         .         .         .44 

48.  Conditions  and  Achievements  of  Scientific  Research 

in  the  Seventeenth  Century 44 

49.  Development  of  Toleration  and  of  the  Freedom  of  the 

Press           .........  45 

50.  Decline  of  Belief  in  the  Miraculous :  The  English  Deists  46 

51.  The  French  PliilosopheH :  Voltaire         .         .         .         :  47 

52.  Development  of  the  Idea  of  Progress    .         .         .         .48 

53.  Reaction  against  the  Thought  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  48 

PART  VII.  THE  CHIEF  NOVEL  ELEMENTS  IN  CONTEMPORA- 
NEOUS INTELLECTUAL  LIFE. 

Section  54.     The  New  Social  Basis  of  Intellectual  Life:  Democracy  50 

55.  The  New  Historical  Basis  of  Intellectual  Life :     The 

Doctrine  of  Evolution 51 

56.  The  New  Economic  Basis  of  Intellectual  Life:     The 

Industrial  Revolution         ......  51 

57.  Socialism,  the  Religion  of  Industrial  Democracy          .  52 

58.  Speculation  concerning  Man's  Bodily  Welfare      .         .  53 

59.  The  Newer  Social  Sciences 53 

60.  Problem  of  readjusting  Education  to  our  new  Knowl- 

edge and  new  Needs           ......  54 

61.  The  Conservative  Spirit  in  the  Light  of  Intellectual 

History 55 


AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE 

HISTORY  OF  THE 

INTELLECTUAL  CLASS 
IN  WESTERN  EUROPE 


Part    I.       THE     BACKGROUND     OF    INTELLECTUAL 
HISTORY. 

Section  i.     Scope  and  Aims  of  Intellectual  History. 

Sketch  of  the  development  of  History:  epic,  political, 
''sacred";  the  "philosophy  of  history."  How  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  History  became  scientific  and 
truly  historical  in  its  aims  and  methods. 

Man's  abject  dependence  on  the  past  gives  rise  to  the  con- 
tinuity of  history.  Our  convictions,  opinions,  prejudices,  in- 
tellectual tastes;  our  knowledge,  our  methods  of  learning  and 
of  apphing  our  information  we  owe,  with  slight  exceptions,  to 
the  past  —  often  to  a  remote  past.  History  an  expansion  of 
memory,  and  like  memory  it  alone  can  explain  the  present  and 
in  this  lies  its  most  unmistakable  value.  Greneral  neglect  of 
Intellectual  History.  Distinction  between  the  history  of  the 
intellectual  class  and  the  history  of  philosophy,  science,  litera- 
ture, or  education. 

Reading:  The  article  "History"  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th 
ed.  (by  J.  T.  Shotwell) ;  Robinson,  J.  H.,  The  Xew  History,  especially 
essays  I-IV.  There  is  no  satisfactory  general  account  of  the  history  of 
history,  but  Flint,  R.,  The  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  History  (1894), 
which  relates  chiefly  to  France,  contains  much  of  value.  Langlois  and 
Seignobos,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  History,  sets  forth  the  modern  scien- 
tific methods  of  historical  research. 


2  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

Bemheim,  Lehrbuch  der  historischen  Methode  (6th  ed.,  1908),  is  the  most 
elaborate  study  of  the  subject  and  gives  a  list  of  works  on  special  fields  of 
historiography.  An  idea  of  more  recent  discussions  can  be  had  in  Berr,  H., 
La  Sijnthese  en  Histoire  (1911).  See  also  article  "Histoire,"  in  La  Grande 
Encyclop6die. 

Section  a.     Man's  uneducated  Mind. 

Two  historical  facts  of  supreme  importance  discovered  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  Nineteenth -century:  that  man  is  de- 
scended from  the  lower  animals  and  that  he  appears  to  have 
been  sojourning  on  the  earth  for  several  hundred  thousand 
years.  Contrast  between  the  implications  of  this  view  of 
man's  origin  and  of  that  formerly  held. 

Reasons  for  assuming  that  we  retain  our  animal  mind  along 
with  our  animal  body.  Importance  of  the  new  study  of 
animal    (comparative)    psychology.  Extraordinary   educa- 

bility  of  the  Chimpanzee.  How  an  ape  learns:  Trick  psy- 
chology, "trial  and  eri'or";  association  of  thought  through 
"contiguity," — all   very  human.  Why  the   ape   does   not 

"ape."  Man's  large  brain,  superadded  to  his  ape-like  struc- 
ture and  temperament,  enables  him  to  imitate  and  to  transmit 
acquired  knowledge  and  habits  and  so  to  accumulate  civiliza- 
|tion.  Fundamental  contrast  between  "nature"  and  "nur- 
ture" (culture),  the  first  of  which  only  is  transmitted  heredi- 
tarily. Problem  of  the  hereditary  transmission  of  acquired 
characters.  Hypothesis  of  a  colony  of  really  uneducated 
infants.  Human    nature   constantly   confused   with   what 

is  really  human  nurture.  Question  of  racial  differences  in 
mental  capacity.  Does  Intellectual  history  deal  with  nature 
or  nurture  or  both  ? 

*Crampton,  H.  E.,  The  Doctrine  of  Evolution,  its  Basis  and  its  Scope 
(1911),  especially  chaps,  v-vi;  *Gedde8  &  Thompson,  Evolution  (Home 
University  Library);  *Drummond,  H.,  The  Ascent  of  Man,  chaps,  i-ii; 
*Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Animal  Intelligence,  Experifnental  Studies  (1911),  espe- 
cially chaps,  i,  iv,  and  vii;  Holmes,  S.  J.,  The  Evolution  of  Animal  Intel- 
ligence (1911);  Washburn,  M.,  The  Animal  Mind  (1908),  especially  earlier 
chapters;  James,  Wm.,  Psyeliologij  (edition  in  2  vols.,  1895),  chaps,  xxii 
and  xxiv,  on  reasoning  and  instinct.  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Tlie  Original  Nature 
o/Jfaw  (1913). 


BacTcground  of  Intellectual  History  3 

Darwin,  Ch.,  The  Descent  of  Man  ;  Morgan,  C.  Lloyd,  Instinct  and  Experi- 
ence (1Q\2) ;  McDougall,  W.,  Social  Psychology  (^d.  gA.,  1910);  by  the  same. 
Body  and  Mind  (2d  ed.,  1913);  Tarde,  G.,  Laics  of  Imitation;  Hobhouse, 
Mind  in  Evolution  (1901). 

Section  3.     The  Antiquity  of  Man. 

Nature  of  the  evidence  bearing  on  man's  antiquity.  Lyell's 
Antiquity  of  Man,  published  in  1863.  Physical  remains  of 
man ;  Pithecantropus  Erectus  discovered  in  Java  in  1892. 
"  EoUths."  The  fist  hatchet  the  first  well  developed  unmis- 
takable human  utensil.  Paleolithic  eras.  Great  influence  in 
the  development  of  culture  attributed  to  the  movements  of  the 
ice  sheet.  Paleolithic  art.  Ground  stone  tools  of  the  Neo- 
lithic period.  The  continuity  of  invention  illustrated  by 
bronze  celts.  Vast  progress  implied  by  the  advance  to  the 
Neolithic  or  agricultural  stage.  Survival  of  paleolithic  civi- 
lizations among  the  recently  extinct  Tasmanians  and  other 
backward  peoples. 

Buttel-Reepen,  Man  and  his  Forerunners,  1913,  good  illustrated  summary ; 
Keith,  A.,  Antiquity  of  Ma)t.  (1915);  Sollas,  Ancient  Hunters,  2d  ed.,  1915; 
Article  "  Archeology"  by  C.  H.  Read  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th  ed.; 
*MaeCurdy,  G.  G.,  Recent  Discoveries  heariny  on  the  Antiquity  of  Man  in 
Europe  (1910),  extract  from  the  Smithsonian  Report  of  1909 ;  *Haddon, 
History  of  Anthropology  (1910),  especially  chaps,  iv  and  viii ;  Marett,  R.  R., 
Anthropology  (Home  University  Library). 

Lyell,  Ch.,  Antiquity  of  Man  (1863);  Mortillet,  de,  G.  et  A.,  La  Prehis- 
toire ;  D^ehelette,  J.,  Manuel  d'archeoloyie  prehistorique.  Vol.  I. 

Section  4.     Primitive  Reasoning  of  Man :  General  Per- 
spective of  Intellectual  Development. 

Nature  of  primitive  intellectual  life  can  be  deduced  from 
archeological  survivals  and  from  the  study  of  contemporane- 
ous savages.  Development  of  language ;  reflections  on  the 
role  of  language.  Spontaneous  generation  of  superstition. 
Prevalence  of  the  mana,  animism,  magic,  totemism;  ^'di'eam 
logic,"  belief  in  the  soul  and  a  life  beyond  the  grave.  These 
all  perendure  as  elements  in  even  highly  developed  later  reli- 
gious systems  and  in  ancient  and  mediaeval  science. 

General  perspective  of  the  history  of  the  human  mind  'illus- 
trated by  a  clock  dial  on  which  each  of  the  twelve  hours  repre- 


4  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

sents  20,000  years.  What  we  call  ''civilization"  a  recent 
and  hitherto  precarious  addition  to  the  older  attainments  of 
mankind. 

*Boa8,  Franz,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man  (1911),  especially  chaps,  i-v 
and  the  summary,  pp.  244-250,  calculated  to  dispel  many  venerable  illu- 
sions; by  the  same  author.  Introduction  to  Handbook  of  American  Indian 
Languages  (Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1910),  and  discussion  of  language  in 
Payne,  History  of  the  New  World  called  America,  Vol.  11,  pp.  88  sqq. ;  Car- 
penter, J.  E.,  Comparative  Religion  (Home  University  Library) ;  Marett, 
op.  dt.;  ^Thomas,  Wm.  I.,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  pp.  1-26,  143-186, 
426-435,  and  part  VI,  on  Magic,  Animism,  etc. 

Tylor,  E.B.,  Frimitive  Culture,  2  vols. ;  Westermarek,  Origin  and  Develop- 
ment of  Moral  Ideas  (2  vols.,  1906-8);  Hobhouse,  Morals  in  Evolution,  new 
ed.,  1915. 


Part   II.     HELLENISM   AND   ITS   TRANSMISSION   TO 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Section   5.     Intellectual  Debt  of  Europe  to  Egypt  and 
Assyria. 

The  Greeks  wrote  the  first  books  (with  the  exception  of 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament)  destined  to  form  a  part  of 
the   intellectual    heritage   of  Western   Europe.  Unsolved 

problem  of  what  the  Greeks  owed  to  the  Egyptians  and  to 
the  eastern  Mediterranean  countries.  The  Egyptians  the 
first,  so  far  as  is  kno\\Ti,  to  invent  writing.  Character  of 
the  slight  remains  of  early  Egyptian  literature.  Interest 
mainly  practical,  e.  g.,  care  of  the  body  in  this  world  and  of 
the  soul  in  the  next.  Egj^tian  origin  of  Alchemy.  From 
Assyria  came  astrology  and  our  divisions  of  the  circle  and 
of  the  day.         Newly  discovered  Aegean  civilization. 

*Breasted,  Development  of  Religion  and  Thought  in  Ancient  Egypt,  1912; 
Jastrow,  Civilization  of  Babylonia  and  Antiyria,  1915 ;  Hawes,  C.  H.  and 
H.  B.,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece  (1911);  Hogarth,  D.  G.,  Io7iia  and 
the  East  (1909);  *Rogers,  R.  W.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  espe- 
cially ill  its  relations  to  Israel,  1908. 

Meyer,  E.,  Geschichte  des  Altertmns,  new  ed.,  1907,  sqq.  ;  Cantor,  Vorles- 
ungen  iiber  Geschichte  der  Mathetnatik,  parts  I-II,  pp.  17-104;  Dussaud,  E., 
Les  Civilisations  prehSlleniques,  1910. 

Section  6.     The  Beginnings  of  Philosophic  Speculation 
among  the  Greeks. 

The  intellectual  life,  strictly  speaking,  appears  to  have  first 
begun  on  a  considerable  scale  in  the  Ionian  towns  and  in  their 
colonies  in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  (700-500  B.C.).  Thales 
of  Miletus.  Search  for  the  material  principle  of  all  things 
culminated  in  the  theory  of  the  four  elements  of  Empedocles 
(fl.  circa  450  B.C.)  which  was  later  sanctified  by  Aristotle. 
The  Eleatic  philosophers  —  Xenophanes  (fl.  circa  530  B.C.), 
Parmenides  (fl.  circa  495) — their  confidence  in  metaphysical 
reasoning,  their  paradoxes  and  unchanging  world.  Pytha- 
gorean enthusiasm  for  explanatoi-y  value  of  numbers  and  pro- 


6  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

portion.         Leucippus  (fl.  circa  440  B.C.)  and  Democritus  (fl. 
410  B.C.)  advance  the  mechanistic  theory  of  atoms. 

Destruction  of  Miletus  in  494.  (A  generation  earlier  the 
Hebrews  had  returned  from  the  exile  and  were  developing  the 
literature  which  was  destined  to  be  included  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.) After  the  repulse  of  Xerxes  (Marathon,  490;  Ther- 
mopolae  and  Salamis,  480)  Athens  becomes  the  center  of  an 
incomparable  intellectual  life  for  a  century  and  a  half. 

Short  accounts  of  thft  early  Greek  thinkers  will  be  found  in  *Marshall, 
John,  A  Short  History  of  Greek  PMJosophii ;  Burnet,  Greek  Philosophy,  Vol. 
I,  1914,  Thales  to  Plato;  Windelband,  Ancient  Philosophy ;  Zeller,  Outlines 
of  the  History  of  Greek  Philosophy,  and  in  Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Grecque,  Vol.  11,  pp.  471-535.  Extracts  from  Pre-Socratic  philosophy  in 
*Bakewell,  Source  Book  in  Ancient  Philosophy,  pp.  1-66. 

Fuller  treatments  may  be  found  in  Gromperz,  Greek  Thinkers,  Vol.  I ; 
Burnet,  John,  Early  Greek  Philosophy,  and  Zeller,  History  of  Greek  Philos- 
ophy from  the  earliest  period  to  Socrates,  2  vols. 

Section  7.     The  Sophists:  Socrates  and  Plato. 

Appearance  of  a  class  of  professional  teachers,  Sophists,  in 
Athens,  who  bring  philosophy  down  to  earth.  Their  char- 
acter and  the  reasons  for  their  bad  reputation.  Attitude  of 
Euripides. 

Our  impressions  of  Socrates  (470-399)  (who  wrote  nothing) 
largely  due  to  Xenophon  and  Plato.  Socrates  early  alienated 
from  natural  science;  his  exclusive  reliance  upon  discussion 
(dialectic). 

Plato  (427-347):  Nature  and  variety  of  his  Dialogues. 
Importance  of  the  indecisive  character  of  the  discussions. 
Free  play  of  reason ;  Plato  has  no  "  authorities  "  in  later  sense 
of  term,  and  gives  only  a  subordinate  place  to  the  supernatural. 
Theory  of  ideas  the  basis  of  later  Platonism.  Two  tenden- 
cies in  Plato  which  become  distinct  later:  (a)  his  skeptical 
method  approved  by  the  Academy  in  succeeding  centuries; 
(b)  his  mystic  tendencies — as  shown  in  the  Timaeiis  (the 
only  dialogue  to  be  had  in  Latin  in  the  Middle  Ages)  and 
in  the  sequel  to  the  "Laws,"  the  Epinomis  —  became  the  basis 
of  Neoplatonism,  which  abjured  reason. 


Hellenism  and  its  Transmission  7 

•Murray,  Gilbert,  Ancient  Crreek  Literature,  chaps,  vii  and  xiv ;  by  same 
writer,  Euripides  and  his  Age  (Home  University  Library)  ;  *Croi8et,  An 
Abridged  History  of  Greek  Literature,  chap,  xix  (Attic  philosophy  from 
Xenophon  to  Aristotle) ;  Burnet,  Greek  Philosophy,  Vol.  I.  Shorter  accounts 
will  be  found  in  the  manuals  of  Marshall,  Windelband,  and  Zeller,  men- 
tioned under  section  6 ;  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  chap.  Ixvii  contains  a 
celebrated  account  of  the  Sophists;  *Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
grecque,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  38-68  (Sophists).  Of  Plato's  dialogues  the  best  worth 
reading  are  perhaps  *The  Bepuhlic  (especially  books  i-ii  and  the  opening  of 
iii  and  books  vii  and  ix)  ;  The  Apology,  Crito,  and  Phaedo  (which  relate  to 
the  trial,  last  hours,  and  death  of  Socrates )  ;  The  Banquet  or  Symposium, 
deemed  Plato's  finest  literary  work ;  Protagoras,  showing  up  charmingly  the 
chief  Sophists;  the  Thcaetetus  which  deals  with  the  nature  of  knowledge; 
and  the  Timaeus  (see  Jowett's  interesting  introduction)  which  exhibits  the 
mysticism  that  appealed  to  Plato's  mediaeval  admirers.  Xenophon's  Mem- 
orabilia or  liceollections  of  Socrates,  together  with  several  of  Plato's  most 
important  dialogues,  are  to  be  found  in  "Everyman's  Library"  in  two  inex- 
pensive volumes ;  important  extracts  are  given  in  Bakewell,  Source  Book. 

Fuller  treatments  of  Socrates  and  Plato  will  be  found  in  Gomperz,  Greek 
Thinkers,  Vols.  II-III ;  Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  grecque.  Vol.  IV, 
pp.  200-385.  Zeller  has  a  volume  on  Socrates  and  the  Soa-atic  Schools  and 
another  on  Plato  and  the  older  Academy. 

Section  8.  Aristotle  and  his  Supreme  Place  in  the 
History  of  European  Thought. 
How  Aristotle  codified  Greek  learning  and  added  much  of 
his  own.  Romantic  story  of  his  manuscripts.  Their  ency- 
clopaedic range.  Fourfold  character  of  Aristotle's  interests, 
philosophical,  scientific,  scholarly,  and  ethical.  His  habit  of 
presenting  his  material  in  the  form  of  systematic  treatises. 
His  theory  of  essence  and  the  four  '*  causes,"  material,  formal, 
efiicient,  and  final.  The  four  elements,  earth,  water,  air,  and 
fire.  The  perfection  of  the  heavens  and  his  conception  of 
God  as  the  "first  mover."  Theory  of  motion  and  of  light 
and  heavy.  Virtue  a  happy  mean ;  highmindedness ;  the  ideal 
contemplative  life ;  Aristotle's  reason-loving  God.  Sources 
of  Ai'istotle's  enduring  influence.  He  opens  the  era  of  "  la 
science  Uvresque." 

The  most  available  of  Aristotle's  works  are  his  ^Politics    (especially 
Book  I  and  opening  of  Book  III  and  his  *  Ethics  (for  example,  Book  II, 
vi-ix;    Book  IV,   chaps,  vii-viii,  and  Book  X).       The  works  of 


8  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

Aristotle  are  now  being  translated  into  English  and  published  by  the 
Clarendon  Press,  Oxford.  The  Metaphysics,  1908,  the  Historia  Animalmm, 
1910,  and  some  of  the  lesser  works  have  appeared.  There  are  good  trans- 
lations of  the  De  Anima.  Important  extracts  may  be  found  in  Bakewell, 
Source  Book.  For  general  range  of  interests  among  the  Greeks  see  Hellenic 
Civilization,  by  Professors  Botsford  and  Sihler  in  "  Records  of  Civilization ," 
Columbia  University  Press,  1915. 

In  addition  to  the  manuals  mentioned  in  section  6  above,  see  Wallace, 
Outlines  of  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle ;  Taylor,  A.  E.,  Aristotle  (an  admirable 
little  book) ;  Lones,  T.  E.,  Ai-istotle's  Researches  in  Xatural  Science,  1912 ; 
Grote,  Aristotle;  Zeller,  Aristotle  and  the  Peripatetics;  and,  especially  inter- 
esting, *Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  grecque,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  675  sqq. 

Section  9.    Four  Main  Schools  of  Greek  Thought :  Stoics 
and  Epicureans. 

Four  main  schools  of  thought  traced  their  origin  to  the 
rather  vague  and  uncertain  teachings  of  Socrates:  (a)  Plato 
and  the  Academy;  (b)  Aristotle  and  the  Peripatetics;  (c)  Diog- 
enes (pxipil  of  Antisthenes)  and  the  Cynics ;  (d)  Aristippus  and 
the  Cjrrenaics. 

Zeno,  shortly  after  Aristotle's  death,  revises  the  tenets  of  the 
Cynics  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Stoicism.  Hymn 
of  his  co-worker,  Cleanthes.  Stoic  conception  of  God  (Provi- 
dentia)  and  of  our  essential  freedom  through  reason;  ''Indiffer- 
ent," things  alone  out  of  our  control.  Argument  from  design ; 
duty  of  praising  God  in  his  works.  Books  of  Greek  Stoics 
lost  but  their  views  to  be  found  in  the  writers  of  the  Roman 
period,  in  Cicero's  Nature  of  the  Gods,  Seneca,  Epictetus,  and 
Marcus  AureUus. 

Epicurus,  a  contemporary  of  Zeno,  combined  doctrines  of  the 
Cyrenaics  with  the  atomic  theory  of  Democritus.  Mechanistic 
theory  of  the  universe.  The  Epicm-eans  hoped  to  free  men's 
minds  from  needless  anxiety  in  regard  to  the  gods  and  death. 
The  Roman  poet  Lucretius  (d.  about  55  B.C.)  set  forth  atomic 
theory  and  Epicurean  doctrines.  His  horror  of  "religio" 
(Tantum  religio  potuit  suadere  malorum).  All  things  are 
due  to  natural  causes,  nothing  to  supernatural  intervention. 

In  addition  to  the  manuals  mentioned  under  section  6,  Zeller,  Stoics,  Epi~ 
cureans  and  Skeptics;  *Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  grecque,  V,  chap,  ii, 
excellent.    For  the  Stoics,  Seneca,  On  Benefits;  Epictetus,  Golden  Sayings, 


Hellenism  and  its  Transmission  9 

selected  by  Crossley  in  Golden  Treasury  series ;  Complete  translation  of 
Discourses  of  Epictetus  by  Long  in  Bohn  Library ;  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Thoughts,  many  editions.  Hicks,  Stoic  and  Epicurean;  For  the  letters  of 
Epicurus  (very  important)  see  Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  and  Opinions  of 
Eminent  Philosopliers  (written  probably  early  in  the  third  century  A.D.)  or 
extracts  given  by  Bakewell  in  his  Source  Book.  Second  only  in  import- 
ance to  the  words  of  Epicurus  are  those  of  his  admirer  Lucretius  in  his 
poem  on  ' '  The  Nature  of  Things,"  translated  by  Monro  and  in  a  more 
spirited  manner  by  Bailey  (Clarendon  Press). 

Section  lo.     Transfer  of  Intellectual  Hegemony  to  Alex- 
andria: Hellenistic  Period. 

Character  of  later  Greek  thought.  Failure  to  standardize 
sensation  through  invention  of  scientific  instruments.  In- 
fluence of  slavery  in  checking  development  of  science. 

Hellenizing  of  Alexander's  empire.  Alexandria  (founded 
332   B.C.)    becomes   center   of    intellectual   activity.  Its 

"Museum"  and  great  Ubraries.  Books  of  period  nearly  all 
lost.  Variety  of  scientific  interest  illustrated  by  Euclid 

(d.  about  300) ;  Aristarchus  and  his  discovery  of  the  rotation 
of  the  earth;  Eratosthenes  (about  275-195)  and  his  encyclo- 
paedic interests;  Archimedes  (287-212)  and  his  attitude  toward 
applied  science,  and  Hipparchus  (d.  about  130).  G-eographi- 
cal  and  astronomical  ideas  of  the  period  transmitted  by  Ptolemy 
(2d  cent.  A.D.).  Treatises  on  mechanical  devices  by  Hero  of 
Alexandria  (fl.  circa  100  B.C.  or  later).  Range  of  mechan- 
ical inventions  of  Greeks  and  Romans.  Unfulfilled  promise 
of  Hellenistic  science. 

Gow,  James,  A  Short  History  of  Crreeh  Mathematics  (1884);  Ball,  W.W.R., 
Short  Account  of  the  History  of  Mathematics  (3d  ed.,  1901),  chaps,  i-iv; 
Croiset,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  grecque,  Vol.  V,  chap,  i ;  Mahaffy,  Greek 
Life  and  Thought  from  the  death  of  Alexander  to  the  Roman  Conquest 
(disappointing  for  our  purpose,  in  spite  of  promising  title) ;  Snyder,  Karl, 
The  World  Machine  (marvelously  enthusiastic  but  highly  uncritical). 
There  appears  to  be  no  satisfactory  summary  of  the  general  intellectual 
history  of  this  period  in  English,  but  some  good  chapters  may  be  found  in 
Holm,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  IV. 

The  standard  treatment  of  Hellenistic  literature  is  Susemihl,  Fr.  Ge- 
schichte  der  Griechischen  Litteratur  in  der  Alexandrinerseit  (2  vols.,  1891-2). 


10  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

There  is  an  admirable  recent  account  in  Christ,  Geschichte  der  griechischen 
lAtteratur  (5th  ed.,  1911),  Vol.  EE,  pp.  190-228;  Cantor,  Vorlesungen  uber 
Geschichte  der  Mathematik  (1894),  sec.  iii,  pp.  105-482,  would  appear  to  be 
well  nigh  exhaustive;  Dannemann,  F.,  Die  Xaturwissenschaften  in  ihrer 
Entwicklung,  1910,  I,  118  sqq. ;  Gerland  und  TraumiUler,  Geschichte  der 
Physikalische  Experimentisrkunst,  1899. 


Section    ii.      How   Hellenism    was   transmitted    to   the 
Romans. 

After  the  Third  Samnite  war  the  Romans  annex  the  cities 
of  Magna  Graecia  (290-272)  and  later  (212)  Syracuse.  De- 
velopment of  Roman  Literature  and  thought  stimulated  by 
Hellenism.  Long  history  of  the  Latin  language  from  Naevius 
(d.  about  200)  to  the  present  day.  Plautus  (d.  about  184) 
and  Terence  (d.  about  159)  adapt  Greek  comedies  to  Roman 
demands.  Cato  the  Censor  (about  232-147),  first  Latin  prose 
writer,  protests  in  vain  against  Greek  influences.  Cicero  and 
his  contemporaries  Lucretius  and  Varro,  the  encyclopaedic 
writer.  "Golden"  age  of  Augustus  (d.  14  A.D.),  Virgil, 
Horace,  Ovid,  Livy. 

Duff,  J.  W.,  A  Literary  History  of  Rome  (1909),  pp.  18-38  and  92-117; 
Mackail,  Latin  Literature,  chaps,  i-iii,  contains  a  brief  review  of  the  begin- 
nings of  Latin  literature. 

Section  12.    Cicero's  Role  in  Transferring  Greek  Thought 
into  Latin. 

Cicero  (106-43)  and  his  importance  in  the  history  of  thought. 
His  early  studies  in  Athens,  Rhodes,  and  elsewhere.  De- 
lighted in  freedom  from  dogmatism.  Nos  qui  sequimur  pro- 
babilia  et  ref ellere  sine  pertinacia  et  refelli  sine  iracundia  parati 
sumus.  His  method  of  using  Greek  books  as  a  basis  for  his 
philosophical  treatises.  His  dialogue  On  the  Nature  of  the 
Gods  an  admirable  illustration  of  the  various  schools  of 
thought  of  his  time. 

Mackail,  Latin  Uterature,  chap,  vi ;  Duff,  J.  W.,  A  Literary  History  of 
Rome,  pp.  349-397.  Eeid  in  his  introduction  to  his  edition  of  Cicero's  Aca- 
demica  gives  an  excellent  account  of  Cicero's  attitude  toward  Greek  learning. 


Hellenism  and  its  Transmission  11 

Section  13.     Decline  and  Disappearance  of  Hellenism  in 
Western  Europe. 

The  Hellenic  intellectual  and  literary  impetus  begins  sensibly 
to  flag  after  the  ''Golden"  age  of  Augustus.  The  "Silver" 
age  scarcely  holds  its  own ;  followed  by  the  steady  and  definite 
decline  of  Hellenism  in  the  west.  The  elder  Pliny  (d.  79 
A.D.) ;  his  Natural  History,  a  vast  and  indiscriminate  compila- 
tion. The  circle  of  the  amiable  younger  Pliny,  about  the 
year  100:  —  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  Martial,  Quintilian;  Juvenal 
(d.  about  140).  Age  of  the  Antonines  (138-180)  of  which 
one  can  form  some  notion  from  the  Attic  lights  of  Aldus 
GeUius. 

Learning  had  long  been  largely  reminiscent.  Archaistic 
tendency;  affectation  and  intricacy  of  literary  style.  Pre- 
dominating study  of  rhetoric.  Greek  still  current  among 
the  learned.  The  belated  Lucian  (d.  about  200)  and  his 
witty  dialogues.  After  this  time  only  a  few  scattering  ex- 
amples of  the  older  Hellenic  ambitions. 

Martianus  Capella,  probably  in  Constantine's  time,  furnishes 
in  his  Marriage  of  Mercury  and  Philology  a  text  book  of  the 
Seven  Liberal  Arts,  which  admirably  illustrates  the  bad  taste, 
degenerate  style  and  dry  epitomizing  which  overtook  the  an- 
cient learning. 

Fundamental  weakness  of  Hellenic  learning :  It  was  an  im- 
posing collection  of  speculations,  opinions,  and  guesses,  which, 
however  brilliant  and  ingenious  they  might  be,  were  based  on 
a  very  slight  body  of  exact  knowledge,  and  failed  to  recognize 
the  fundamental  necessity  of  painful  scientific  research,  aided 
by  apparatus.  There  was  no  steady  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge to  offset  the  growing  emotional  distrust  of  reason.  The 
game  was  played  out,  and  the  ancient  knowledge  which  did  not 
find  its  ways  into  the  arid  and  unintelligent  epitomes  of  the 
time,  was  doomed.  Vain  efforts  of  Boethius  (about  475-525) 
to  transmit  to  posterity  Latin  translations  of  some  of  the  chief 
Greek  authors.  Knowledge  of  Greek  practically  lost  in 
Western  Europe  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 


12  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

An  emotional  and  consequent  intellectual  revolution  had 
been  in  progress  in  the  Roman  Empire,  which  not  only  serves 
to  explain  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Middle  Ages  but  that  of 
modem  times. 

*Pliny  the  Yoimger,  Letters,  translated  by  Firth  (Camelot  Series) ;  Dill, 
Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  AureJius,  Bk.  II,  chap,  i  ("Circle  of  the 
Younger  Pliny");  Mackail,  Latin  Literature,  part  III,  chaps,  iv-v;  A\ilus 
Gellius,  Attic  Nights  ;  *Glover,  Conflict  of  Religions  in  the  early  Roman  Ein- 
pire,  chap,  vii;  *Hatch,  Influence  of  &reek  Thought  and  Usages  on  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  chap,  ii  (Greek  Education);  Selections  from  Lucian,  translated 
by  E.  J.  Smith;  Walden,  J.W.  H.,  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece  (relates 
chiefly  to  this  period) ;  *Taylor,  H.  O.,  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
pp.  18-56;  Glover,  Life  and  Letters  in  the  Fourth  Century;  Dill,  Ro^nan 
Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Empire,  Bk.  V  (Characteristics  of  Eoman 
Education  and  Culture  in  the  Fifth  Century). 


Part  III.  FORMATION  IN  THE  LATER  ROMAN  EM- 
PIRE OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  HERITAGE 
OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Section  14.  How  Christian  Literature  Largely  Sup- 
planted that  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

The  new  Christian  literature  confined  to  reUgious  exhorta- 
tion, biblical  exegesis,  controversy,  and  ''sacred"  history. 
Earliest  Christian  works  were  in  Greek;  Apology  of  Minucius 
Felix  (end  of  2d  century)  first  example  of  a  Christian  work  in 
Latin.  Tertullian  (d.  about  230)  first  voluminous  Latin 
writer.  Cyprian  (d.  258).  Great  expansion  of  Christian 
literature  after  Constantine's  accession ;  Eusebius  and  his 
Ecclesiastical  History ;  Sozomen,  Socrates,  and  Orosius  estab- 
lish new  standards  of  historiography.  Athanasius  (d.  375), 
Basil  (d.  379),  and  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  write  in  Greek;  chief 
Latin  "fathers"  of  this  period,  Ambrose  (d.  373),  Jerome 
(d.  420),  and,  above  aU,  Augustine  (d.  430). 

The  origin  and  character  of  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  patristic 
period  will  be  the  subject  of  the  succeeding  sections  and  references  will  be 
given  in  connection  with  each  topic.  For  the  general  development  of  Chris- 
tian literature  see  short  account  in  Mackail,  Latin  Literature,  part  iii, 
chap,  vi,  and  excellent  extensive  treatment  in  Ebert,  Litteratur  des  Mittel- 
alters,  Vol.  I. 

Section  15.  "The  Christian  Epic":  Syncretism:  The 
Place  of  Religion  in  the  History  of  the  Intellectual 
Class. 

"The  Christian  Epic,"  as  summarized  by  Santayana. 
Whence  came  the  Church  with  its  conception  of  "two  cities," 
its  revelation  dominating  reason,  its  ideas  of  sin  and  salvation, 
of  the  resurrection  and  last  judgment,  of  heaven  and  hell, 
angels  and  devils,  miracles,  martyrs  and  monks,  its  mysticism 
and  sacraments,  and  its  power  to  make  disbeUef  a  crime  in  the 
eyes  of  the  State? 

Habit  of  Christian  apologists  to  contrast  Christianity,  pure 


14  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

and  undefiled,  with  an  unspeakable  "paganism"  or  idol  wor- 
ship. Historical  ''Christianity"  now  appears  to  the  modern 
student  of  comparative  religion  to  have  been  the  highly  com- 
plex result  of  a  long  development,  and  to  resemble  in  certain 
important  respects  a  number  of  world  religions — Stoicism, 
Neoplatonism,  Mithraism,  Manichaeism,  Judaism  —  with  which 
it  found  itself  in  rivalry  during  the  early  centuries  of  its  exis- 
tence. Religious  ^^  syncretism, ^^  a  process  of  unconscious 
borrowing  and  lending.  A  new  religious  system  is  always 
deeply  affected  by  the  prevailing  conditions  and  always  carries 
over  much  that  is  old. 

"Religious"  a  vague  and  comprehensive  term  applied  to: 
(1)  Certain  classes  of  emotions  (awe,  dependence,  self-distrust, 
aspiration,  etc.) ;  (2)  Conduct,  which  may  take  the  form  of 
distinctive  religious  acts  (ceremonies,  sacrifices,  prayers,  "  good 
works")  or  the  observance  of  what  in  primitive  conditions  are 
recognized  as  "taboos";  (3)  Priestly  or  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zations; (4)  Beliefs  about  supernatural  beings  and  man's  re- 
lations to  them :  the  latter  may  take  the  form  of  revelation  and 
be  reduced  to  creeds  and  become  the  subject  of  elaborate 
theological  speculations.  The  highly  organized  Christian 
Church  with  its  revelations,  its  creeds,  and  vast  system  of 
theology  has  exercised  an  incalculable  influence  on  the  devel- 
opment of  thought  and  science  in  Western  Europe  from  the 
days  of  Augustine  to  our  own. 

*Saiitayana,  Life  of  Reason ;  Reason  in  Religion,  chap,  vi;  *Hateh,  In- 
fluence of  Greek  Thought  and  Usages  on  the  Christian  Church,  chap,  i; 
*Taylor,  Henry  O.,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  chap,  iii;  *Shotwell,  James  T.^ 
The  Religious  Revolution,  1913;  Farnell,  The  Evolution  of  Religion,  1905  (a 
brief  and  admirable  statement  of  the  anthropological  attitude  toward 
religious  phenomena)  ;  Knox,  G.  W.,  Japanese  Life  in  Town  and  Country, 
chaps,  vi-ix  (contains  striking  parallelisms  between  oriental  and  western 
religious  ideas). 

Section  i6.     The  General  Religious  Disposition  in  the 
Roman  Empire.     Neoplatonism. 

Stoicism  (see  above  section  9)  had  a  good  deal  in  common 
with  Christianity,  but  exalted  reason.         Dechne  of  confidence 


Intellectual  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  15 

in  reason;  consciousness  of  sin  and  pollution;  longing  for 
purification  and  salvation;  great  expansion  of  the  super- 
natural—  good  and  evil  spirits,  theurgy,  mysticism,  ecstacy, 
asceticism.  Plutarch  (b.  about  50  A.D.)  and  his  respectful 
attitude  toward  new  gods  and  old  myths. 

Neoplatonism :  Kindred  in  mystical  spirit  to  Christianity ; 
communion  through  ecstacy  with  a  supernatural  God ;  intuition 
superior  to  reason  ;  contempt  of  material  things.  Doctrines 
of  Plotinus  (about  204-270),  its  reputed  founder,  edited  by 
Porphyry  (about  232-300),  whose  attack  on  Christianity  was 
later  burned  by  order  of  Theodosius  II.  Jamblicus  (d.  about 
330)  defends  unbounded  credulity  in  his  de  Mysteriis.  The 
Celestial  Hierarchy,  which  we  first  hear  of  in  the  early  sixth 
century,  a  Neoplatonic  work  ascribed  by  the  Church  to  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite.  Augustine's  attitude  toward  Platonism 
in  his  Confessions  and  City  of  God. 

*Cumont,  Oriental  Religions  in  Roman  Paganism  (remarkable  work)  ; 
Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the  last  Century  of  the  Empire,  Book  I,  chap,  iv; 
*Hatch,  Influence  of  Greek  Thought  and  Usagen  on  the  Christian  Church, 
especially  chaps,  ii,  iii,  and  xi ;  *Glover,  Conflict  of  Religions  in  the  Early 
Roman  Empire,  chap,  iii  (Plutarch)  and  viii  (Celsus).  For  Neoplatonism 
see  Select  fVorlcs  of  Plotinus  (Bohn  Library) ;  "Extracts  in  Bakewell, 
Source  Book;  *Hamack,  History  of  Dogma,  appendix  to  Vol.  I,  pp.  336 
sqq. ;  *Taylor,  Ancient  Ideals,  Vol.  II,  pp.  80  sqq. ;  Croiset,  Histoire  de  la 
Uttirature  grecque,  Vol.  V,  pp.  820-841. 

Section   17.      Persian    Syncretism:    Mithraism:     Mani- 
chaeism. 

Persian  (Zoroastrian)  explanation  of  the  existence  of  evil 
by  assuming  two  principles,  the  light  and  the  dark,  the  good 
and  the  bad,  at  war  with  one  another.  Worship  of  Mithras, 
the  Mediator,  appeared  in  the  Roman  Empire  as  early  as  Plu- 
tarch and  later  spreads  widely  in  the  west.  Worship  of  the 
sun.  Similarities  between  Mithraism  and  Christianity  in  its 
ritual,  baptism,  and  communion.  How  the  Christian  Sunday 
and  Christmas  are  associated  with  Mithras. 

Manes,  born  at  Ctesiphon  about  215  A.D.  (crucified  in  272) 
largely  affected  by  teachings  of  primitive  Christianity.         Re- 


16  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

jection  by  the  Manichaeans  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  the  work 
of  the  evil  spirit.  Final  judgment  and  separation  of  the 
light  from  the  darkness.  Manichaeism  had  its  revelation  of 
truth,  its  ecclesiastical  organization,  its  asceticism,  and  heaven 
and  hell.  Revival  in  later  Middle  Ages  of  Manichaean  con- 
ceptions by  the  Cathari  (Albigensians). 

Cumont,  F.,  The  Mysteries  of  Mithra  ;  *Dill,  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to 
Marcus  Aurelius,  final  chapter  (on  Mithras);  Harnack,  History  of  Dogma, 
appendix  to  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  316  sqq.  The  so-called  "Acta  Archelai,"  or  alleged 
disputation  between  Manes  and  the  Christian  bishop  Archelaus  of  Mesopo- 
tamia (early  fourth  century)  may  be  found  translated  in  Ante-Nicene 
Christian  Library,  Vol.  XX.  Augustine's  works  directed  against  the  Mani- 
chaeans—  to  which  sect  he  once  belonged  —  are  translated  in  The  Nicene 
and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  First  Series,  Vol.  IV. 

Section  18.     How  Judaism  Became  the  Background  of 
the  Religion  of  Europe:   The  Hebrew  Bible. 

Christianity  a  development  of  Judaism,  to  which  it  owed 
in  great  measure  its  early  propagation.  Christians  assign 
to  Hebrew  literature  a  position  far  higher  than  to  that  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  accept  Jewish  tradition  and  history  as 
history  par  excellence,  beginning  with  the  account  in  the 
Pentateuch  of  the  creation,  the  fall  of  man,  the  flood,  the 
confounding  of  tongues. 

Summary  of  Jewish  history  :  —  Founding  of  Hebrew  mon- 
archy under  Saul,  about  1050  B.C.  David  and  Solomon, 
about  1025-950.  Jerusalem  becomes  the  capital.  Division 
of  Hebrew  kingdom.  Northern  part  taken  by  Sargon,  722. 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  586.  Baby- 
lonian exile.  Return  of  Jews  to  Jerusalem  under  Cyrus, 
537.  In  following  centuries,  successively  under  various 
foreign  powers,  Palestine  finally  becomes  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  6  A.D.         Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Titus  in  70  A.D. 

The  importance  of  the  "  Diaspora"  or  Jews  of  the  Dispersion, 
who  were  greatly  affected  by  Hellenism.  Alexandria  a  center 
of  Jewish  learning ;  the  Septuagint,  including  the  Apocrypha ; 
Philo  Judaeus  (d.  about  50  A.D.).  The  active  missionary 
spirit  of  the  Hebrews  of  his  time. 


Intellectual  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  17 

Formation  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was 
largely  compiled,  revised,  or  written  after  the  exile.  Char- 
acteristics of  '' inspired"  scriptures:  Everything  tnie,  essential, 
significant,  equipollent,  harmonious,  interchangeable,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  infinite  combinations,  regardless  of  context  and  of 
historical  and  literary  considerations.  Necessity  of  allegori- 
cal interpretation.  Excellently  illustrated  by  Philo  Judaeus' 
''  Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Laws."  The  messianic,  prophetic, 
and  apocalyptic  elements  in  the  Bible.  The  later  Jewish 
angelology,  demonology,  and  eschatology,  exhibited  in  "the 
Book  of  Enoch,"  The  wide  range  of  superstitions  illustrated 
by  the  pseudepigraphical  literature  and  in  the  traditional  rules 
and  interpretations  contained  in  the  Talmuds. 

The  Christians  reject  the  Jewish  "  Law"  but  regard  the  Bible 
as  the  background  of  their  religion,  believing  that  it  foretold 
the  coming  of  Jesus  and  described  God's  dispensations  to  his 
chosen  people,  whose  successors  they  were.  Like  the  Jews, 
they  resorted  freely  to  allegorical  interpretations,  ''  Biblical 
alchemy,"  as  may  be  seen  in  "  The  Epistle  of  Barnabas "  and 
the  *'  Shepherd  of  Hermas." 

ComMll,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel  —  a  brief,  clear  outline,  the  con- 
servatism of  which  may  be  offset  by  Reinach,  Solomon,  Orpheus,  A  General 
Historif  of  Beliijions,  1909,  chap.  \ii;  *Moore,  Geo.  F.,  The  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Home  Univ.  Lib.),  admirable;  Loisy,  Alfred,  La  Religion 
d' Israel,  1908,  delightful  little  volume;  Charles,  R.  H.,  Religious  Develop- 
ment between  the  Old  and  Xeic  Testaments  (Home  Univ.  Lib.);  Kent,  C.  F., 
The  Students'  Old  Testament  logically  and  chronologically  arranged,  6  vols., 
1904  sqq.,  very  interesting;  The  Apoci'apha  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the  0.  T. 
in  English,  edited  by  R.  H.  Charles,  2  vols.,  1913,  very  illuminating.  *Suj)er- 
natural  Religion,  part  I,  chap,  iv,  first  part  (on  superstitions  of  the  Talmud); 
*Hatch,  Influence  of  &reek  Thought  and  Usages  on  the  Christian  Church,  chap, 
iii  (on  the  Greek  use  of  allegory) ;  Philo  Judaeus,  The  Creation  of  the  World 
and  The  Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Laws  in  his  works  in  Bohn  Library,  Vol.  I. 

For  the  relations  of  Christianity  to  Judaism  see  Schmidt,  Nathaniel,  The 
Prophet  of  Xazareth,  chaps,  iii-vii;  *Harnack,  History  of  Dogma,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
99-114;  Wemle,  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-36 ;  Santayana, 
Life  of  Reason,  Reason  in  Religion,  chap,  v  (The  Hebraic  tradition),  "The 
Epistle  of  Barnabas"  and  the  "  Shepherd  of  Hermas  "  may  be  found  in  The 
Apostolic  Fathers  (Loeb  Classical  Library).  See  also  article  "Israel,"  by 
Wellhausen,  in  9th  edition  of  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  article  "Jews" 


18  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

in  the  11th  edition.  Juster,  J.,  Les  Juifs  dans  V empire  Bomain,  leur  condition 
juridiqtte,  econonrique  et  sociale,  Vol.  I,  1914  (Vol.  11  to  contain  documents  and 
tables).  Excellent  treatments  of  the  various  topics  in  this  and  the  following 
sections  will  be  found  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia  and  the  Jewish  Encyclo- 
paedia. 

Section  19.     How  the  New  Testament  became  a  part  of 
the  Intellectual  Heritage  of  Europe. 

The  synoptic  gospels.  Relations  of  gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Luke  to  that  of  Mark,  which  in  turn  seems  to  have  been 
compiled  from  earlier  sources.  The  "  Non-Marcan  "  docu- 

ment, reconstructed  by  Harnack.  Attitude  of  Paul  toward 
the  life  of  Jesus.  .  Argument  of  those  who  believe  that  Jesus 
did  not  contemplate  the  founding  of  a  ''  church "  in  the  later 
sense.  The  New  Testament  formed  by  a  process  of  exclusion. 
Justin  (about  150  A.D.)  refers  only  to ''memorials  of  the 
apostles."  Irenaeus  (d.  202)  assumes  the  existence  of  the 
canon  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Tertullian  (d.  about  230) 
first  uses  the  terra  ''  Novum  Testamentum."  Long  doubts, 
according  to  Eusebius,  in  regard  to  the  inclusion  of  Hebrews, 
2  Peter,  Jude,  and  Revelation.  Natural  tendency  to  interpret 
the  New  Testament  in  the  same  way  as  the  Old. 

Harnack,  History  of  Dogma,  Vol.  I,  pp.  41-75,  and  Vol.  II,  pp.  38-66 ; 
*Conybeare,  F.  C,  Myth,  Magic,  and  Morals,  chaps,  i-ix  (a  clear  discussion 
of  the  sources  for  the  life  of  Jesus);  "Muzzey,  D.  S.,  Rise  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment; Wrede,  The  Origin  of  the  Xew  Testament,  both  good  brief  accounts; 
Schmidt,  Nathaniel,  The  Prophet  of  Nazareth,  chaps,  viii-ix ;  *Glover,  Con- 
flict of  Keligions  in  the  Early  JRoman  Empire,  chaps,  iv-v;  Wernle,  The  Be- 
ginnings of  Christianity,  Vol.  I,  especially  chaps,  iv-xiii;  *Reinach,  Orpheus, 
chap,  viii;  *Harnack,  The  Expansion  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-39; 
Gwatkin,  Selections  from  Early  Christian  Writers  (a  valuable  little  volume 
containing  both  the  Greek  or  Latin  original  and  a  translation  into  English). 

Section  20.  How  the  Catholic  Church  became  the  Intel- 
lectual Arbiter  of  Western  Europe. 
Informal  character  of  the  primitive  "  ecclesia."  Develop- 
ment of  the  "  overseers  "  into  bishops  and  of  the  elders  (pres- 
byters) into  priests.  The  clergy  becomes  a  distinct  order. 
Divergence  of  behef  and  the  appearance  of  numerous  Christian 
sects  beget  the  idea  of  orthodoxy  and  its  opposite,  "heresy." 


Intellectual  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  19 

Contagious,  wilful,  and  devilish  character  of  heresy  (see  2  Peter 
or  Jude) ;  Cyprian's  **  Unity  of  the  Church " ;  doctrine  that 
outside  the  one  church  there  was  no  possibility  of  salvation. 

Supreme  position  in  questions  of  faith  of  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
"  the  successor  of  the  two  most  glorious  of  the  apostles  " ;  the 
Church  takes  on  the  characteristics  of  a  State,  which  it  was 
destined  to  retain,  and  adopts  the  Latin  language,  in  the  West, 
which  it  thus  sanctified  and  perpetuated. 

Edict  of  Toleration  issued  by  Emperor  Galerius  in  311.  Pol- 
icy of  Constantine  favorable  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
sixteenth  book  of  the  Theodosian  Code  contains  edicts  relating 
to  the  Church  issued  by  the  Roman  Emperors  during  the  fourth 
and  early  fifth  centuries.  They  make  it  a  crime  to  disagree 
with  the  Church ;  they  provide  harsh  penalties  for  heretical 
teaching  and  writing,  and  grant  privileges  to  the  orthodox 
clergy  (exemptions  from  regular  taxes  and  benefit  of  clergy). 
Theodosius  the  Great  forbids  (392)  all  worship  of  heathen  gods 
and  Christianity  becomes  a  monopoly  defended  by  the  State. 

Dill,  Soman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Umpire,  Book  I,  chap,  il ; 
Huttmann,  M.  A.,  The  Establishment  of  Christianity  and  the  Prosa-ijjtion  of 
Paganism,  1914,  "  Studies  in  History,  Economics,  and  Public  Law,  Colum- 
bia University"  ;  Addis,  W.E.,  Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire;  Hardy, 
E.G.,  Christianity  and  the  lioman  Government ;  *Lecky,  Rise  and  Influence  of 
Rationalism,  chap,  iv,  part  I,  and  opening  of  part  H;  *Robinson,  J.  H., 
Readinys  in  European  History,  Vol.  I,  pp.  19-27  and  62-73,  gives  extracts 
ilhxstrating  the  development  of  the  Church ;  Reinach,  Orpheus,  chap.  ix. 

Section  21.     Asceticism  and  the  Monastic  Life. 

The  monastic  life  generally  acknowledged  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  to  be  the  ideal  Christian  life.  Important  role  of 
the  monks  and  friars  in  the  intellectual  history  of  western 
Europe.  Asceticism  and  monastic  life  by  no  means  exclu- 
sively Christian.  Ascetic  tendencies  of  Stoicism  and  of 
Neoplatonism.  The  "  saintly"  spirit  as  discussed  by  William 
James.  Puritanical    tendencies    of    the    early    Christians. 

Monasticism  first  develops  on  a  large  scale  in  Egypt  in  the 
fourth  century.  St.  Anthony  (d.  about  356).  His  life  by 
Athanasius,  and  the  life  of  Paul,  the  first  hermit,  by  Jerome. 


20  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

Pachomius  organizes  monastic  communities  on  the  Nile  and 
writes  the  first  monastic  rule.  Egypt  speedily  becomes  the 
source  of  the  classical  traditions  of  monasticism.  Basil, 
bishop  of  Cappadocia,  prepares  a  rule  in  which  the  Church 
undertakes  to  regulate  the  new  tendencies. 

Church  in  the  West  accepts  monasticism.  ''Regular"  and 
"  secular  "  elergy.  The  secular  clergy  become  a  celibate  class. 
Apparent  contradiction  between  the  monastic  and  sacramental 
theory  of  salvation.  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  Augustine  ratify 
the  new  monastic  life.  Benedict  draws  up  his  rule  for  Monte 
Cassino  about  530,  and  furnishes  a  standard  guide  to  the  mon- 
astic life  in  the  West.  The  principles  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience.  Literary  and  scholarly  phases  of  monasti- 
cism incidental. 

*Jame8,  William,  Varieties  of  Beligious  Experience,  Lectures  xi-xiii  (on 
Saintliness) ;  Workman,  H.  B.,  Evolution  of  the  Monastic  Meat,  1913;  *Tay- 
lor,  H.  O.,  The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  \ii;  Harnack, 
Monasticism  (an  interesting  essay) ;  Jerome's  X/fs  o/  Paul  the  First  Hermit 
is  translated  in  the  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  Second  Series,  VI, 
pp.  299-303,  and  the  Life  of  Anthony,  attributed  to  Athanasius,  in  same, 
rV,  pp.  19.5  sqq.  The  Benedictine  Rule  is  in  large  part  translated  in  Hen- 
derson, Select  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  274  sqq. ;  and  in  Thatcher 
and  McNeal,  Source  Book  for  Mediaeval  History,  pp.  434  sqq. ;  *Life  of  St. 
Columban,  Translations  and  Reprints,  Vol.  II,  no.  7. 

Section  22.  Summary  of  the  Views  of  Man  and  the 
World  Transmitted  by  the  Later  Roman  Empire  to 
Posterity. 

Indifference  to  natural  phenomena  (except  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  astrology  and  alchemy) ;  loss  of  much  of  the  older 
knowledge  and  of  the  clarity  and  proportion  of  Hellenism. 
The  seven  Liberal  Arts — logic,  grammar,  and  rhetoric;  arith- 
metic, geometry,  astronomy  (astrology),  and  music — epitomized 
by  Cassiodorus  in  the  sixth  century.  Augustine's  conception 
of  the  city  of  the  devil  comprised  aU  secular  matters.  Origin 
of  "sacred"  as  over  against  ''profane"  history.  The  "Chron- 
icle "  of  Eusebius  makes  Hebrew  history  the  background  of  all 
development.        Sozomen,  Socrates,  and  other  Christian  histo- 


Intellectual  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  21 

nans  deal  by  preference  with  martyrs  and  miracles.  Orosius, 
under  Augustine's  influence,  writes  his  ''Seven  Books  of  His- 
tory against  the  Pagans,"  which  becomes  a  standard  manual 
of  general  history. 

Natural  science,  like  history,  only  valuable  as  illustrating 
God's  ways  to  man,  but  magic  useful  to  foretell  the  future, 
heal  the  sick,  and  make  gold.  The  worst  in  Pliny's  Natural 
History  and  other  similar  compilations  utilized  for  moral  and 
spiritual  ends.  The  "  Physiologus,"  which  probably  origi- 
nated in  Alexandria  before  150  A.D. 

Flourishing  of  the  miraculous;  any  unusual  or  startling 
occurrence  attributed  to  the  intervention  of  either  God  or  the 
devil.  The  worship  of  what  Harnack  has  called  "  a  God  of 
arbitrariness."  Our  legal  expression  "act  of  God"  confined 
to  unforeseeable  natural  disasters.  How  with  a  growing 

appreciation  for  natural  law  and  a  chastened  taste  in  wonders, 
miracles  have  tended  to  become  a  source  of  intellectual  distress 
and  bewilderment. 

How  allegory  put  an  end  to  all  literary  criticism.  Augus- 
tine's view  of  the  resources  of  vagueness.  (Confessions,  xii, 
31.)  Gregory  the  Great's  Moralia.  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636) 
prepares  an  encyclopaedia  of  edifying  "  EtjTuologies." 

Hebrew  cosmology  proves  a  grave  obstacle  to  the  advance  of 
natural  science.  Eschatology  took  the  place  of  our  modern 
ideas  of  scientific  and  social  progress.  Theology  the  highest 
form  of  intellectual  activity,  the  ''Queen  of  Sciences."  No 
form  of  ignorance  or  of  perversity  of  thought  left  for  the 
Middle  Ages  to  discover. 

*Taylor,  H.  O.,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  Vol.  I,  chap,  iv  (The  Patristic  Mind); 
Supernatural  Beligion,  part  I,  chap,  iv,  end,  and  chap,  v;  McCabe,  Joseph, 
Augustine;  *Augustine,  City  of  God,  especially  Bk.  I,  VII,  X  (IX  in  the 
Temple  Classic  edition),  XH  (XI),  XVIH  (XIV),  XXI-XXH  (XVH-XVIH). 
The  "  Physiologus"  is  edited  in  the  Greek  version  with  a  German  transla- 
tion by  Lauchert.  Brehaut,  An  Encydopaedist  of  the  Dark  Ages,  Isidore  of 
Serille,  "  Studies  in  History,  Economics,  and  Public  Law,  Columbia  Univ- 
ersity." White,  Andrew  D.,  History  of  the  Warfare  of  Science  and  Theology, 
2  vols.  This  work,  in  spite  of  its  polemical  character  and  its  inaccuracies, 
is  an  unrivalled  arraignment  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  whole  traditional 


22  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

theological  view  of  the  world.  The  Church  History  of  Eusebius,  translated 
with  admirable  notes  by  Professor  McGrffert,  may  be  found  in  the  Nieene 
and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  Vol.  I.  The  histories  of  Socrates  and  Sozomen 
are  in  the  same  collection. 


Section  23.     Intellectual  Stagnation  of  the  Early  Middle 
Ages. 

Disruption  of  the  western  portions  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  fifth  century  and  the  establishment  of  kingdoms  under 
German  chiefs.  The  Germans  had  little  to  contribute  to  the 
intellectual  heritage,  and  with  the  destruction  or  decline  of  the 
towns  and  flourishing  villas,  books  and  education  became  more 
and  more  rare.  Higher  intellectual  culture  at  that  time 
very  superficial  and  precarious. 

Ineffectual  attempt  of  Boethius  to  hand  down  Plato  and 
Aristotle  in  Latin.  How  Cassiodorus  (about  480-575)  gave 
monasticism   a  literary   turn.  His  popular   compilations. 

Gregory  of  Tours  (d.  594)  laments  the  general  ignorance  and 
resolves  to  write  in  "rustic"  Latin.  Gregory  the  Great 
(d.  604)  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  Latin  fathers.  His  pro- 
test against  the  prevailing  artificiality  of  style.  His  popular 
"Dialogues"  and  his   allegorical  "Moraha."  The  Church 

forced  to  maintain  a  modicum  of  literary  activity  in  order  to 
survive.  The  monasteries  a  refuge  for  those  with  scholarly 
ambitions  and  tastes.  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636)  and  his 
compilations.  The  Venerable  Bede  (d.  735)  represents  the 
greatest  possibilities  of  his  time. 

Charlemagne  reestablishes  order  and  directs  monasteries 
and  cathedrals  to  maintain  schools.  Hopeful  intellectual 
revival  in  the  ninth  century  ^ — ^Alcuin,  Claudius  of  Turin, 
Agobard  of  Lyons,  Rhabanus  Maurus,  Walafrid  Strabo,  Hinc- 
mar  of  Rheims,  Erigena.  Commentaries  and  text  books. 
The  annals  grow  into  chronicles.  Lives  of  Saints.  Mon- 
astic schools  at  Tours,  Fulda,  Corbie,  and  elsewhere.  Re- 
newed invasions;  chronic  disorder  and  neighborhood  war. 
Intellectual  dechne  in  following  century.  Legend  of  the 
Year  1000.         Emergence  during  this  period  of  the  modem 


Intellectual  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  23 

languages.  Strasburg  Oaths  (843).  King  Alfred's  inter- 
est in  English.  Political  conditions  tend  to  become  better 
in  the  twelfth  century. 

*Taylor,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  Vol.  I.  chap,  v  (The  Latin  Transmitters  of 
Antique  and  Patristic  Culture),  chap,  vi  (The  Barbaric  Disruption  of  the 
Empire),  chap,  x  (The  Carolingian  Period);  Robinson,  J.  H.,  The  Xeiv  His- 
tory, chap,  vi,  "The  Fall  of  Rome";  *Poole,  R.  L.,  Illustrations  of  Mediaeval 
Thought,  chap,  i-ii ;  Taylor,  Mediaeval  Mind,  chap,  xi  (Continuity  of  Antique 
Thought  in  Italy),  chap,  xii  (Mental  Aspects  of  the  Eleventh  Century  in 
France). 

Roger,  L'enseignement  des  lettres  classiques  d'Ausone  a  Alcuin  (1905),  with 
exhaustive  bibliography. 


Part  IV.  RISE  OF  THE  MEDIAEVAL  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  THE  PREVAILING  OF  A  MEDIAEVAL- 
IZED  ARISTOTLE. 

Section  24.     Abelard  and  the  Development  of  Theology 
into  a  Subject  of  Systematic  Instruction. 

Seemingly  rather  sudden  beginning,  about  the  year  1100, 
of  a  steady  progress  in  intellectual  matters.  Importance  of 
the  growth  of  towns,  the  extension  of  commerce,  and  of  other 
secular  interests. 

Abelard  (1070-1142)  exhibits  a  taste  for  criticism.  His 
"Historia  calamitatum."  The  issue  between  Reahsts  and 
Nominalists.  Passage  on  the  nature  of  "universals"  in 
Boethius's  translation  of  Porphyry's  Introduction  to  Aristotle's 
"Categories."  Abelard's  "Sic  et  Non";  Haec  quippe  prima 
sapientiae  clavis  definitur,  assidua  scilicet  sen  frequens  inter- 
rogatio;  .  .  .  dubitando  enim  ad  inquisition  em  venimus;  in- 
quirendo  veritatem  percipimus.  He  promoted  the  educa- 
tional enthusiasm  which  led  later  to  the  formation  of  the 
Universities. 

Appearance  about  the  time  of  Abelard's  death  of  Peter  Lom- 
bard's "  Sentences,"  a  handbook  (which  first  distinctly  formu- 
lated the  seven  sacraments)  affording  a  basis  for  an  elaborate 
system  of  theological  instruction.  Contrast  between  the 

Scholastic  theology  and  that  of  the  Fathers. 

*Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  ii ;  Poole, 
Illustrations  of  Mediaeval  Thought,  chap,  v;  Taylor,  H.  O.,  The  Mediaeval 
Mind,  chap,  xxv  (Heloise) ;  *MeCabe,  Joseph,  Abelard  (a  most  fascinating 
biography). 

Section  25.     Revival  of  the  Study  of  Law:    Medicine. 

Importance  of  the  appearance  of  a  class  of  professional 
lawyers.  Law  gives  scope  for  intellectual  activity  and 
criticism,  with  perfect  conservatism  and  veneration  for  author- 
ity. Irnerius  lecturing  on  the  Digest  of  Justinian  at  Bologna 
early  in  the  tweKth  century.         Components  of  the  "Corpus 


Mediaeval  Universities:  Scholasticism  25 

juris  civilis"  or  Roman  law  as  codified  under  Justinian,  A.D. 
527  sqq.:  The  Code,  with  its  later  supplements  (novellae) ;  the 
Pandects  or  Digest  of  the  opinions  of  the  leading  jurists ;  the 
Institutes,  a  brief  text  book. 

The  codification  of  the  Canon  or  Church  law  in  Gratian's 
Decretum  (Concordia  discordantium  canonum),  published  about 
1142.  This  was  based  on  older  collections :  Dionysius  Exi- 
guus  collected  the  "  decretals  "  of  the  popes  about  the  year  500 ; 
the  acts  of  the  councils ;  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  collection  of  the 
ninth  century.  Misleading  term  "  forgery."  Gratian  unsus- 
pectingly includes  many  ''forged"  documents.  Bologna 
becomes  the  chief  center  of  legal  studies.  Origin  of  our 
degree,  LL.D. 

Attention  to  medicine  at  Salerno.  Role  of  authority, 
especially  of  Galen  (b.  about  130  A.D.).  This  subject  in 
time  takes  its  place  as  a  professional  study  beside  Theology 
and  the  two  Laws. 

*Ra8hdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  chap,  iv,  sections  1 
and  2  ;  *Taylor,  H.  O.,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  chap,  xxxiii;  Tardif,  Histoire 
des  sources  dti  droit  canonique  (1887),  an  indispensable  introduction  to  a 
study  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici  of  which  Friedberg's  edition  is  far  the 
best  for  historical  students. 

Section  26.     The  Origin  of  Mediaeval  Universities. 

Increase  of  students  and  instructors  made  some  sort  of  a 
guild  organization  expedient,  and  resulted  naturally  in  univer- 
sitates  or  corporations  of  teachers  or  students.  Scholastic 
corporations  appear  at  Paris  and  Bologna  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  twelfth  century.  At  Bologna  the  students'  guilds  con- 
trol those  of  the  professors.  At  Paris  the  Faculty  of  Arts 
predominates.  The  technical  faculties  of  theology,  law  (civil 
and  canon),  and  medicine.  A  degree  originally  admission  to 
a  professors'  guild  and  permission  to  teach.  ''Magister," 
"Professor,"  and  ''Doctor"  nearly  synonymous;  The  A. B. 
and  A.M. —  University  lectures  commonly  consisted  in  com- 
mentaries on  authoritative  texts. —  No  university  buildings. 
Origin  of  the  colleges.         Oxford  and  Cambridge. 


26  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

*Eashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  I,  pp.  144-252 
(Bologna),  pp.  273-344  (Paris)  ;  *Vol.  II,  chap,  xiv  (Student  Life  in  the 
Middle  Ages);  Paetow,  L.  J.,  The  Arts  Course  in  Mediaeval  Universities 
(with  bibliography),  published  by  University  of  Illinois,  1910 ;  Wulf ,  M.  de, 
History  of  Mediaeval  Philosophy,  1909. 


Section  27.  How  Aristotle's  Works,  in  Latin  Transla- 
tions, became  the  Basis  of  Instruction  in  the  Arts 
Course. 

Great  importance  of  the  introduction  of  Aristotle's  works 
into  the  new  universities  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Previous  to  1200  only  the  logical  treatises  avail- 
able in  Latin.  Two  sources  from  which  his  works  came  to 
Paris  —  through  Constantinople  and  through  the  Mohamme- 
dan scholars  of  Spain.  Circuitous  manner  in  which  a 
knowledge  of  Aristotle  had  reached  Spain.  Importance  of 
the  Mohammedan  commentators,  especially  Avicenna  (d.  in 
Persia,  1037)  and  Averroes  of  Cordova  (d.  1198).  How  it 
came  about  that  the  European  universities  based  their  instruc- 
tion on  a  Latin  translation  of  a  Hebrew  translation  of  an 
Arabic  commentary  on  an  Arabic  translation  [of  a  Persian 
translation]  of  a  S}Tiac  translation  of  a  Greek  philosopher. 
Averroes'  worshipful  attitude  toward  Aristotle. 

Lecturing  on  Aristotle's  Natural  philosophy  and  Metaphysics 
at  Paris  forbidden  at  first  by  papal  legate  (1215).  In  1231 
Gregory  IX  appoints  commission  of  three  to  expurgate  Aristotle. 
A  generation  later  practically  all  of  Aristotle  prescribed  by  fac- 
ulty of  arts  at  Paris.  Rise  of  the  Dominicans  as  teachers. 
Albertus  Magnus  (about  1193-1280)  prepares  a  paraphrase  of 
Aristotle  including  the  commentaries  of  the  Arab  philosophers. 
His  disciple  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  chief  of  the  scholastic  phil- 
osophers (1227-1274),  furnishes  a  more  scientific  edition.  In 
this  way  the  Dominicans  christianize  and  popularize  the  great- 
est of  pagan  scholars. 

The  Averroists  reject  Christianity  in  favor  of  Aristotle  as 
interpreted  by  Averroes.  The  founding  of  the  Inquisition 
did   not  affect    the    intellectual   classes   except   incidentally. 


Mediaeval  Universities:  Scholasticism  27 

Indications  of  a  good  deal  of  intellectual  freedom.  Nature 
of  heresy  and  lowly  status  of  most  of  the  heretics. 

Worship  of  Aristotle  readily  explained  by  the  vast  amount 
of  information  in  his  works,  his  skillful  classification  of  knowl- 
edge, his  logical  method,  already  in  high  repute,  and  above  all 
by  the  fundamental  consonance  of  his  teleology,  his  theories 
of  essence,  of  the  four  elements,  and  of  the  perfection  of  the 
heavens  with  Christian  beliefs. 

Aristotle's  ill-understood  works  and  often  fundamentally 
erroneous  doctrines  remain  for  centuries  the  basis  of  higher 
education  and  an  additional  obstacle  that  had  to  be  overcome 
before  modern  progress  could  begin.  Roger  Bacon  declared 
with  prophetic  insight,  Si  enim  haberem  potestatem  super 
libros  Aristotelis  (that  is  the  Latin  translations)  ego  facerem 
omnes  cremari,  quia  non  est  nisi  temporis  amissio  studere  in 
illis,  et  causa  erroris  et  multiplicatio  ignorantiae,  ultra  id  quod 
valeat  expUcari. 

*Taylor,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  Vol.  11,  chap,  xxxix;  Renan,  Averroes  et 
VAverroi'sme;  Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe,  I,  pp.  345-392;  *Lea,  H.  C, 
History  of  the  Inquinition  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Vol.  I,  contains  chapters  on 
the  rise  of  heresies  and  the  organization  and  procedure  of  the  Inquisition 
in  the  Thirteenth  Century ;  Vol.  EQ,  chap,  viii,  deals  especially  with  the 
relation  of  the  Inquisition  to  the  intellectual  class.  Article  "Inquisition" 
in  the  Catholic  Enct/clopedia :  *Robinson,  J.  H.,  Headings  in  European 
History,  Vol.  I,  chap,  xvii;  Mandonnet,  P.,  Sigei'  de  Brabant  et  I'averroisme 
latin  an  xiiiieme  Steele,  2d  ed.,  1911,  with  second  part  containing  documents. 
Grabmann,  Geschichte  der  Scholastische  Methode. 


Section  28.     Nature  and  Scope  of  University  Instruction 
in  the  Thirteenth  Century:  Scholasticism. 

To  the  meager  heritage  which  had  been  worked  over  and 
over  again  since  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  now 
added  all  of  Aristotle's  works  in  faulty  and  obscure  Latin  trans- 
lations, with  the  commentaries  of  the  Arabic  scholars  and  of  the 
scholastic  theologians.  In  addition  to  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
the  "arts"  course  consisted  mainly  of  lectures  on  Aristotle's 
"Physics,"  "Metaphysics,"  "Ethics,"  "On  Animals,"  "On  the 


28  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

Soul,"  his  lesser  works  on  natural  phenomena,  and  above  all, 
his  logical  treatises. 

Exaggerated  respect  for  Logic,  which  Albertus  Magnus  calls 
omnis  doctrinae  modus.  Predominance  of  eristic  over  dia- 
lectic. Lists  of  propositions  and  their  defence.  Character 
of  the  scholastic  philosophy  best  illustrated  by  the  commen- 
taries on  Aristotle's  works  prepared  by  Albertus  Magnus  and 
Aquinas.  Mainly  commentary  on  opinions  of  earlier  writers 
and  refutation  of  ingenuous  objections  with  little  attempt  to 
criticize  the  data  on  which  the  opinions  were  formed  or  test 
them  by  a  reexamination  of  the  facts.  Conception  of  "  author- 
itative" texts.  Necessity  of  harmonizing  conclusions  with 
the  Christian  Epic  and  the  Patristic  theology.  All  the  weak- 
nesses of  the  Hellenic  reasoning,  combined  with  those  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  underlay  what  appeared  to  be  a  most  logi- 
cally elaborated  and  definitive  system  of  thought. 

Deficiencies  of  the  university  education :  no  literature. 
Greek  practically  unknown ;  Latin,  in  a  sense,  a  living  tongue 
as  used  among  scholars.  Chief  contrasts  between  Mediaeval 
and  ancient  Latin.  Vernacular  languages  not  recognized 

by  the  scholarly  world  until  recently.  Little  History  or 

Natural  Science,  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  taught  in  the 
universities.     (See  below.  Section  31.) 

The  range  of  knowledge  of  the  educated  class  in  general 
may  be  judged  from  such  convenient  encyclopaedic  works  as 
Alexander  Neckam's  "  De  naturis  rerum,"  in  time  of  Henry  II 
of  England,  and,  in  the  next  century,  Bartholomew  Anglicus's 
"De  proprietatibus  rerum"  (extracts  in  Steele's  ''Mediaeval 
Lore"),  or  Vincent  of  Beauvais'  vast  Speculum,  in  three  parts, 
"  Naturale,"  ''  Morale,"  and  "  Historiale." 

*Taylor,  The  Mediaeval  Hind,  Vol.  II,  chap,  xxxix  (Albertus  Magnus) 
and  chap,  xl  (Aquinas) ;  *Rashdall,  European  Universities,  Vol.  I,  pp.  426- 
477;  Aquinas,  Of  God  and  His  Creatures,  a  translation  of  the  Summa  contra 
Gentiles,  by  Riekaby,  1905 ;  Walsh,  J.  J.,  The  Thirteenth  the  Greatest  of 
Centuries  (N.  Y.  Catholic  Summer  School),  1907,  chaps,  ii-v  (to  be  taken 
cumgrano)',  Wulf,  M.  de,  History  of  Mediaeval  Philosophy,  1909. 


Mediaeval  Universities:  Scholasticism  29 

Section  29.     Astrology,  Alchemy,  and  Magic. 

Chiefly  through  Arabic  influence  attention  was  turned  in 
Western  Enrope  to  Astrology  and  Alchemy.  Astrology, 
which  developed  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  found  its  way 
westward.  Ptolemy's  treatise.  Judicial  astrology  as  de- 
scribed by  Roger  Bacon.  Later  taught  in  the  universities 
and  regarded  as  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  medicine. 
Theory  centered  about  the  "  temperamentum,"  as  influenced 
by  stellar  conditions  at  the  time  of  conception  and  of  birth. 
Intricate  matter  to  determine  the  relations  of  the  planets  and 
the  sun  and  their  combined  influence  in  particular  cases. 

Alchemy  developed  in  Egypt  and  was  associated  with  appUed 
chemistry.  Its  popularity  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Arabic 
derivation  of  the  term.  Roger  Bacon  gives  an  excellent 
notion  of  the  ambitions  of  the  alchemists  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century.  Their  fantastic  terminology  and  secret  and  mys- 
tical operations  all  stood  in  the  way  of  the  rapid  development 
of  chemistry. 

Continued  interest  in  magic;  represented  by  a  considerable 
literature. 

Article  "Astrology"  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th  ed. ;  Bennett, 
E.  H.,  Asfrologj/,  1897,  by  a  modern  adept;  Roger  Bacon,  Ojyus  Majus  (ed. 
by  Bridges),  Vol.  I,  pp.  238  sqq.;  Article  "Alchemy"  in  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,  11th  ed.  ;  Berthelot,  La  Chimie  an  Moijen  age;  Article  "  Alchi- 
mie,"  by  Berthelot,  in  Grande  Encyclop^die ;  Muir,  M.  M.  P.,  Story  of 
Alchemy  and  the  beginnings  of  Chemistry,  1903. 


Part  V.  SLOW  UNDERMINING  OF  THE  SCHOLASTIC 
SYSTEM  (FROM  ROGER  BACON  TO  LORD 
BACON). 

Section  30.     Excursus  on  the  Question  of  Dividing  the 
Past  into  Periods. 

Historical  continuity  seems  to  preclude  periodizing  of  the 
past.  Historical  divisions  adopted  by  Orosius;  by  Otto  of 
Freising  (12th  Century) ;  current  notions  of  "  Middle  Ages/' 
"  Renaissance  "  and  "  Reformation."  Suggested  division  from 
the  standpoint  of  intellectual  development.  I.  Neolithic  or 
primitive ;  II.  Ancient ;  III.  Hellenic ;  IV.  Patristic ;  V.  Scho- 
lastic (Pseudo- Aristotelian) ;  VI.  Period  of  slow  disintegration 
of  the  Mediaeval  System;  VII.  The  "Aufklarung/'  from  Lord 
Bacon  to  Voltaire  (growing  confidence  in  scientific  research, 
and  the  kingdom  of  man ;  decline  of  authority,  revelation,  and 
the  miraculous)  ;  VIII.  Present  period,  of  applied  science, 
democratization,  evolution,  and  the  scientific  study  of  mankind. 

Beginning  in  the  twelfth  century  there  has  been  a  tolerably 
steady  progress,  very  slow  at  first,  in  regaining  old  knowledge 
and  amassing  new,  in  rejecting  former  errors,  in  criticising  and 
applying  knowledge  and  in  spreading  it  by  means  of  books  and 
institutions  of  learning. 

Section   31.     Discoveries    of    the   Thirteenth    Century: 
Beginnings  of  Experimental  Science:  Roger  Bacon. 

Geographical  discoveries  begin  to  extend  beyond  the  limits 
of  Ptolemy's  ''  Geography."  The  Crusades ;  Travels  of  John 
of  Piano  Carpini  (1246)  and  of  William  of  Rubruquis  (1253), 
and  especially  of  Marco  Polo  (reached  home  1295).  Popular- 
ity of  Travels  of  Sir  John  MandeviUe. 

Practical  inventions :  lenses,  spectacles,  concave  muTors,  the 
compass,  useful  chemicals.  Increased  use  of  paper.  Great 
importance  of  the  introduction  of  the  Arabic  numerals. 

Beginnings  of  experimental  science,  which  was  to  revolution- 


Undermining  of  the  Scholastic  System  31 

ize  thought.  Attitude  of  Roger  Bacon  (b.  about  1214,  d. 
after  1292);  Certitude  and  clarity  can  only  come  through  ''  Ex- 
perientia,"  not  through  authority  or  mere  reason.  Bacon's 
life  focuses  in  letter  from  the  pope,  1266,  commanding  him  to 
write  out  his  ideas.  The  Opus  Majus,  Opus  Minus,  and  Ojnis 
Tertium  completed  before  end  of  the  next  year.  Bacon  urges 
investigation  of  common  things  and  the  useful  application  of 
the  knowledge  thus  gained.  His  letter  on  the  possible 
achievements  of  applied  science.  Obstacles  in  the  way  of 
scientific  advance.  Sterility  of  scholastic  method.  Views 
of  Bacon  not  so  exceptional  as  once  supposed.  Experimen- 
tation went  on  among  artisans  and  alchemists. 

*Marco  Polo,  T7-ari'Is,  many  editions,  the  best  of  which  is  edited  by 
H.  Yule,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1903.  "Travels  of  Sir  John  MandeviUe.  The  best 
edition  is  published  by  the  Macmillan  Co.,  for  it  contains  the  narratives  of 
Piano  Carpini,  Rubruquis,  and  of  Friar  Odoric,  on  which  "  Sir  John  Mande- 
viUe" relied.  Beazley,  C.  R.,  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography,  3  vols.,  1897- 
1906,  especially  vol.  iii.  For  Roger  Bacon:  Article  in  11th  ed.  of  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica ;  Thorndike,  Lynn,  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Sep- 
tember, 1915,  and  Philosophical  Review,  May,  1914;  Roger  Bacon  Essays 
(in  commemoration  of  seventh  centenary),  ed.  by  Little,  1914  ;  Introduction 
by  Brewer  to  his  Opera  Inedita  of  Bacon;  Introduction  and  analysis  in 
Bridge's  edition  of  the  Opus  Majus ;  Cantor,  Vorlesunyen  iiber  (Teschichte  der 
Mathematik,  sec.  vii,  pp.  699-768  (on  the  Arabians)  and  sec.  viii  on  Kloster- 
gelehrsamkeit. 

Section  32.     Beginnings  of  Criticism  of  Social  Institu- 
tions:   Peter  Dubois  and  Marsiglio  of  Padua. 

Tendency  of  society  to  view  its  institutions  as  sacred  and 
permanent  and  to  regard  those  who  criticize  them  as  enemies 
of  the  social  order.  Mediaeval  discussion  of  the  relations 
between    pope    and   emperor.  Rediscovery   of    Aristotle's 

Politics  broadens  speculation  in  13th  century.  Peter  Du- 

bois's De  Becuperatione  Terre  Sancte  (written  about  1303) 
offers  a  general  program  of  reform  —  secularization  of  church 
property,  international  arbitration,  reduction  of  litigation, 
and  practical  education. 

Marsiglio  of  Padua  writes  his  Defensor  Pads  about  1324. 
His  conception  of  popular  sovereignty  and  of  the  supremacy 


32  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

of  the  state  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  His  hostility  to  the 
papacy  and  his  critical  examination  of  the  tradition  of  Peter's 
presence  in  Rome. 

Dubois,  Reeuperatione  Terre  Sancte,  edited  by  Langlois,  with  introduction, 
1891;  *Robinson,  J.  H.,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  491  sqq.,  for  ex- 
tracts from  the  Defensor  Pads;  Poole,  R.  L.,  Illustrations  of  Mediaeval 
Thought,  chap.  ix. 

Section  33.     Dante  (1265-1321)  and  his  World. 

Dante  represents  the  highest  secular  culture  of  his  day. 
Availability  of  his  works  for  the  student  of  intellectual  his- 
tory. Range  of  his  writings  in  Italian  and  Latin  —  Vita 
Nuova,  Be  Monarchia,  De  vulgari  eloquio,  CommecUa.  Par- 
ticular interest  of  The  Banquet,  wiitten  for  the  intelligent 
public  who  did  not  know  Latin.  Cosmology  (r/.  passage 
at  end  of  thirty-fourth  canto  of  Inferno);  Ptolemaic  system; 
Allegory   on   a  par  with    scientific   descriptions.  Dante's 

attitude  toward  the  past  (c/.  end  of  fourth  canto  of  Inferno). 
His  knowledge  of  ancient  authors.  Contrast  between  Dante 
and  later  humanists. 

Dante,  Convivio,  as  edited  by  Wicksteed  in  Temple  Classics,  *books  i-ii. 
There  is  an  excellent  prose  translation  of  the  Comedia  and  the  New  Life  by 
Charles  Eliot  Norton;  the  De  ruJgari  eloquenfia  is  translated  by  Howell; 
the  De  Monarchia  by  F.  J.  Church.  Moore,  Ed.,  Studies  in  Dante,  First 
Series,  contains  an  account  of  the  scriptural  and  classical  quotations  in 
Dante's  work ;  see,  especially,  complete  list  of  Dante's  citations,  at  end  of 
the  volume.  *Taylor,  The  Mediaeval  Mind,  chap,  xliu,  an  admirable  review 
of  Dante's  attitude. 

Vossler,  K.,  Die  gottUche  EomikUe  (1807-10,  2  vols.,  in  4  parts),  parts  i-ii, 
an  elaborate  study  of  the  antecedents  of  Dante's  great  work. 

Section  34.     Petrarcli  and  Humanism. 

The  so-called  ''Revival  of  Learning"  and  the  theory  of  a 
Renaissance  or  awakening  of  Western  Europe  from  its  sup- 
posed winter  sleep  through  the  rediscovery  of  the  Latin  and 
Greek  authors.  "Humanism"  a  convenient  term  for  the 
enthusiasm  for  Roman  and  Greek  literature  which  began 
to  develop  in  Italy  in  the   fourteenth  century.  Original 


Undermining  of  the  Scholastic  System  33 

meaning  of  "hmnanitas"  {cf.  Aulus  Gellius,  N'octium  Atti- 
carum,  Lihri  XX,  book  xiii,  17).  Term  "litterae  human- 
iores"  misunderstood  by  Symonds  and  others;  peculiar  position 
of  Italy  in  regard  to  Roman  literature. 

Petrarch  (1304-1374)  the  first  distinguished  Italian  human- 
ist; his  power  of  self -revelation ;  his  voluminous  correspond- 
ence ;  "  Letter  to  Posterity  " ;  scope  of  his  works ;  his  conflicting 
ideals  and  ambitions  as  illustrated  by  his  "  Secret."  Contents 
of  his  library  of  Latin  writers ;  his  inability  to  read  Greek. 

Translations  of  some  of  the  more  important  of  Petrarch's  letters  may  be 
found  in  *Robinson  and  Rolfe,  Petrarch,  the  first  Modern  Scholar  and  Man 
of  Letters,  2d  enlarged  ed.,  1914;  especially  Introduction,  parts  i,  ii,  iii, 
andvii;  and  Cosenza,  M.  E.,  Petrarch's  Letters  to  Classical  Authors,  1910. 
*Loonii8,  Louise,  Mediaeval  Hellenism,  1906  (Columbia  University  Doctor's 
dissertation),  a  remarkably  clear  review  of  the  antecedents  of  humanism. 

Nolhac,  P.,  Petrarch  et  rHumanism,  2d  ed.,  2  vols,  1907,  admirable; 
Voigt,  Wiederhelehung  des  Classischen  Alterthums,  3ded.,  1893,  book  i  (excel- 
lent) ;  Korting,  Petrarca's  Leben  und  Werke,  1878.  Brandi,  Karl,  Das  Wer- 
den  des  lienaissance,  1908.  This  is  a  lecture  which  with  its  critical  notes 
admirably  sums  up  the  newer  view  of  the  Renaissance.  Wernle,  Paul, 
Benaissance  and  lieformation  (six  lectures),  1912. 

Section  35.  Italian  Scholarship  in  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

Absence  of  literary  criticism  before  Petrarch.  With  him 
began  in  Italy  the  systematic  search  for  manuscripts,  first  of 
the  Roman  and  then  of  the  Greek  writers,  which  were  collated, 
copied,  edited,  and  the  Greek  translated  into  Latin.  Very 
few  Roman  wi-iters  "rediscovered"  —  chief  of  these,  Tacitus, 
Younger  Pliny,  Lucretius,  and  many  of  Cicero's  letters.  Great 
part  of  Roman  hterature  still  lost,  e.  g.,  Varro,  much  of  Livy, 
Tacitus,  Seutonius,  etc.         Recent  finds  in  Egypt. 

Ignorance  of  Greek  literature  in  the  West  from  the  sixth 
to  the  fifteenth  century.  Chrysolorus,  teacher  of  Greek  at 
Florence,  1396-1400.  Reflections  of  his  pupil,  Leonardo 
Bruni  (1369-1444),  who  begins  the  translating  of  Greek  works 
into  Latin.  Aurispa  arrives  in  Venice  iu  1422  with  238  Greek 
manuscripts  from  Constantinople ;  five  years  later  Filelf o 
(1398-1483?)  brings  48  more.  Niccolo  NiccoH  (1364-1437), 
a  Florentine  patron  of  classical  Literature,  leaves  800  books  for 


34  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

a  public  library.  Activity  of  Poggio  (1380-1459).  Ves- 
pasiano's  (1421-1498)  description  of  the  libraries  of  Cosimo 
de'Medici  (died  1464),  of  Pope  Nicholas  V  (died  1454),  and  of 
the  duke  of  Urbino.  These  all  included  patristic  and  scho- 
lastic works  and  indicate  no  special  partiality  for  the  "classics." 
Lorenzo  Valla  (1407-1457)  shows  some  critical  tendencies  in 
repudiating  the  '*  Donation  of  Constantine."        His  Elegantiae. 

Circle  of  Lorenzo  de'Medici  (died  1492).  Ficino  translates 
Plato  into  Latin  (first  ed.  1482),  then  Plotinus  and  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite.  Pico  della  Mirandola  (1463-1494)  and  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  Jewish  Cabbala.  Aldus  Manutius,  the 
Venetian  printer,  issues  33  editions  of  Greek  writers  from  1494 
to  1515. 

Place  of  Humanism  in  the  intellectual  development  of 
Western  Europe.  Doubtless  served  to  preserve  a  few  Latin 
works  that  might  have  been  lost  and,  what  was  far  more  im- 
portant, to  familiarize  the  West  with  that  part  of  Greek  litera- 
ture which  survives.  It  brought  with  it  literary  taste  and 
some  criticism,  but  did  not  revive  hellenism.  It  ultimately 
furnished  a  new  basis  for  "liberal"  education  through  the 
substitution  of  a  study  of  the  "classics"  for  the  older  Aris- 
totelian curriculum.  It  certainly  did  something  to  produce 
or  forward  the  secularization  of  intellectual  life  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  as  it  appears,  for  example,  in  Pomponazzi, 
Machiavelli,  Guicciardini. 

Humanism  did  not  free  itself  from  Neoplatonic  mysticism ; 
it  had  little  to  contribute  to  modern  scientific  advance,  which 
it  hampered  in  some  respects ;  it  tended  to  perpetuate  the  con- 
fidence in  ancient  authority  and  impeded  the  development  of 
the  modern  languages;  it  was  reactionary  rather  than  pro- 
gressive. 

*Burckhardt,  The  Civilization  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  part  III,  espe- 
cially chaps,  i,  iii,  vi,  ix,  and  xi;  Symonds,  J.  A.,  The  Eevival  of  Learning, 
especially  chaps,  vi  and  ix ;  Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol.  11, 
chaps,  i-ix;  Whitcomb,  M.,  A  Literary  Source  Book  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, contains  translated  extracts  from  writers  of  the  time. 

Voigt,  Wiederbelebung  des  Classisclien  Alterthums,  books  ii-v  and  book  vii 
on  the  achievements  of  Humanists. 


Undermining  of  the  Scholastic  System  35 

Section  36.  The  Making  of  Books  before  the  Invention 
of  Printing. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  books  commonly  rolls  of 
papyrus  (bibJos,  volumen).  Derivation  of  "paper"  and 
"  charter."  The  wax  tablets  and  stylus  for  correspondence 
and  memoranda;  parchment  "codex"  mentioned  before  end  of 
first  century.  Slow  substitution  of  parchment  for  papyrus, 
which  disappears  in  the  West  after  the  Arabic  conquest  of 
Egypt,   in    seventh    century.  By   twelfth    century   paper 

begins  to  be  introduced,  through  the  Moors,  but  not  much 
used  in  Christian  Europe  until  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  Roman  capital  letters  (majuscules)  mainly  derived  from 
a  Greek  alphabet.  Origin  of  our  lower  case  letters  (minus- 
cules) from  the  cursive  writing  of  the  Romans.  Variations 
in  forms  —  Gothic  or  black  letter,  and  Roman. 

Study  of  Paleography;  temptations  to  abbreviate  in  copy- 
ing; chances  of  eiTors;  inclusion  of  glosses;  emendations,  in- 
terpellations. No  two  manuscripts  ever  alike;  families  of 
manuscripts;  collation  essential  to  critical  editing;  original 
autograph  copy  (hologi'aph)  invariably  lost  until  compara- 
tively recent  period.  Organization  of  the  book  trade  in 
connection  with  the  universities.  Standard  books  pretty 
plentiful  and  convenient  in  form. 

What  did  it  mean  to  publish  (edere)  a  book  before  the  in- 
troduction of  printing?  Petrarch's  difficulties  in  getting 
his    writings    copied.  Libraries    mainly   in    monasteries. 

Boccaccio's  account  of  the  collection  at  Monte  Cassino. 

Putnam,  G.  H.,  Books  and  tlwir  Makers  during  the  Middle  Ages,  2  vols., 
1896-7,  Vol.  I,  part  I,  deals  with  manuscript  books.  Nolhac,  Petrareh  et 
I'Humanism,  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1907.  Wattenbach,  Schriftwesen  im  Mitfelalter, 
3d  ed.,  1896,  is  the  chief  treatise  on  the  subject.  Thompson,  E.  M.,  Hand- 
hook  of  Greek  and  Latin  Faleography,  4th  ed.,  is  excellent. 

Section  37.     The  Invention  of  Printing  and  its  Effects. 

Disadvantages  of  manu  scripti.  Essential  elements  in 
printing  :  —  cast  type,  ink,  paper,  press.  Only  advantageous 
when  a  considerable  number  of  copies  are  made.  Famiharity 
of  the  ancients  with  stamps  and  seals.         Block  books  in  the 


36  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

early  fifteenth  century.  Donatuses  in  cast  type  may  ante- 
date 1440.  Mayence  Bible  probably  completed  in  1456. 
Dated  Psalter  of  the  next  year.  First  press  in  Italy,  1466. 
By  1500  there  were  some  42  presses  which  may  have  produced 
no  less  than  8  millions  of  copies  of  books  by  that  date.  Cele- 
brated presses  of  Koburger  at  Nuremburg,  Aldus  at  Venice, 
Froben  at  Basel.  Caxton  issues  first  book  printed  in  England 
in  1477.  Printers  at  first  sedulously  imitate  calligraphy 

and  current  abbreviations  of  the  scribes.  The  Gothic  and 
the  Roman  style  of  letters.  "  Italics  "  invented.  The  col- 
ophon. Printing  insures  uniformity  of  copies  and  discour- 
ages tampering  with  the  text. 

Great  part  of  the  early  printed  books  —  "incunabula" — 
ancient  works  having  to  do  with  theology,  religion,  astrology, 
and  mediaeval  thought,  to  which  were  added  in  time  the 
Roman  and  Greek  writers.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century 
printing  begins  to  stimulate  the  production  of  new  books. 
Great  expansion  of  our  historical  sources  from  this  time. 
Promise  of  a  complete  democratization  of  books. 

*Blades,  Pentateuch  of  Printing,  1891 ;  DeVinne,  Invention  of  Printing, 
2d  ed.,  1878;  Putnam,  G.  H.,  Books  and  their  Makers  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
Vol.  I,  part  II ;  Janssen,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I,  Book  I,  chap.  i. 
A  considerable  library  might  be  collected  of  works  relating  to  early  print- 
ing, but  those  mentioned  give  an  excellent  idea  of  the  chief  points. 

Section    38.      Spread    of   Humanism   Beyond    the   Alps, 
Especially  into  Germany. 

Founding  of  the  German  universities ;  Prague  (1348) ;  Vienna 
(1365,  reorganized  1384).  During  the  succeeding  generation 
Heidelberg,  Cologne,  Erfurt,  and  Leipzig  (1409).  In  latter 
part  of  fifteenth  century  the  number  was  more  than  doubled ; 
Freiburg,  Trier,  Tiibigen,  Basel,  Wittenberg  (1502).  Preva- 
lence of  dialectic,  Aristotle,  and  "  Kitchen  Latin." 

Rudolph  Agricola  (1442-1484),  the  Petrarch  of  Germany. 
First  generation  of  German  humanists  resemble  the  early 
Italian  humanists  in  their  conservatism.  Contrast  between 
the  national  enthusiasm  of  Germany  and  Italy. 


Undermining  of  the  Scholastic  System  37 

Later  "poets"  of  the  opening  sixteenth  century.  Celtes, 
Mutianus,  Crotus  Rubeanus  (Latinization  of  proper  names)  find 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  conservative  (Dominican)  theo- 
logians. How  Erasmus  joined  the  circle.  John  Reuchlin 
(1455-1522)  and  his  famous  heresy  case.  The  Letters  of 
Obscure  Men  (1515-1517).  Ulrich  von  Hutten  (1488-1523) 
and  his  Dialogues.         Appearance  of  Martin  Luther. 

*Creighton,  M.,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Vol.  VI,  Book  VI,  chaps,  i-ii; 
*Beard,  C,  Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  chap,  iii; 
*Lindsay,  T.  M.,  A  History  of  the  Reformation  (1906),  Vol.  I,  pp.  42-78; 
Janssen,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I,  Book  I,  chaps,  iii-iv ;  Vol. 
Ill,  BookV;  Strauss,  D.  F.,  Ulrich  v.  Hutten,  His  Life  and  Times  {I87i); 
Whitcomb,  M.,  Literary  Source-Book  of  the  German  Renaissance  (1899); 
Stokes,  F.  G.,  Epistulae  Obscurorum  Virorum,  with  English  translation,  1909. 

Voigt,  TViederbelebung  des  Classischen  Alterthums,  Book  VI;  Geiger, 
Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Italien  vnd  Deutschlund,  1882,  part  II. 

Section  39.     Erasmus,  the  Embodiment  of  Humanistic 
Enlightenment. 

Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  (1466-1536)  comparable  to  Petrarch 
and  Voltaire  in  his  international  reputation.  Brief  experi- 
ence in  a  monaster3^  Goes  to  England,  1499,  and  to  Italy 
(1506)  to  aid  Aldus.  His  Adages  give  him  a  gi*eat  reputa- 
tion; his  Enchiridion  militis  Ghristiani  (1503)  and  his  idea  of 
Christ's  philosophy,  and  hope  of  a  Christian  revival  which 
should  tend  neither  to  paganism  nor  to  ceremonial.  The 
Praise  of  Folly  (1511)  illustrates  the  freedom  with  which  a 
loyal  Catholic  could  then  criticize  the  prevailing  religious 
notions  and  practices.  Confidence  in  culture.  Groes  to 
Basel  to  aid  Froben  with  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament 
(1516)  (the  Complutensian  polyglot  edition  already  in  prepara- 
tion in  Spain).  Critical  comments  of  Erasmus  on  the  text. 
Erasmus  continues  to  live  in  Germany.  Reasons  for  his 
dishke  and  disapproval  of  Luther. 

*Emerton,  Erasm  us  ;  a  readable  biography,  with  extracts  from  Erasmus's 
works.  *Praise  of  Folly,  many  editions  of  a  poor  old  EngUsh  translation 
with  Holbein's  sketches.  Nichols,  The  Epistles  of  Erasmus  (1901-04),  a 
scholarly  translation  of  letters  written  before  1517.  "Article,  "Erasmus," 
in  the  11th  ed.  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 


38  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

A  new  edition  of  Erasmus's  letters  in  the  original  Latin  —  Opus  Ejnstol- 
arum — is  being  issued  by  the  Oxford  Press,  edited  by  P.S.Allen;  Vols.  I-II 
(1906-10)  contain  the  letters  written  1484-1517. 

Section  40.     General  Nature  of  the  Protestant  Revolt. 

Protestant  writers  have  been  in  the  habit  of  ascribing  the 
most  miscellaneous  beneficent  results  to  the  "Reformation," 
which  is  really  a  vague  and  misleading  partisan  term.  The 
'^ Reformation"  or  Protestant  Revolt  was  unmistakably  the 
secession  of  a  number  of  European  governments  from  the 
Roman  Apostohc  Church.  This  left  the  "  Protestant "  rulers 
free  to  reform  the  religious  institutions  of  their  respective 
realms  regardless  of  the  pope.  "Cujus  regio  ejus  religio." 
The  close  relation  between  Church  and  State  continued. 
There  was  freedom  of  conscience  for  the  princes  only,  who 
generally  endeavored  to  enforce  religious  conformity.  Trea- 
son and  blasphemy  replace  heresy  in  Protestant  countries. 

Protestants  continue  to  accept  the  whole  "  Christian  epic " 
and  a  great  part  of  the  beliefs  of  the  church  from  which  they 
seceded,  but  they  agreed  in  rejecting  the  headship  of  the  pope 
("  general  priesthood  of  believers  ") ;  in  gravely  modifpng  the 
theory  of  the  seven  sacraments,  especially  of  the  eucharist 
(Mass)  and  Penance  (confession  and  absolution) ;  in  adopting 
a  different  theory  of  the  process  of  salvation,  by  surrendering 
the  belief  in  purgatory  and  the  treasury  of  superabundant 
merit  (indulgences),  and  by  deprecating  "good  works,"  such 
as  pilgrimages,  adoration  of  saints  and  relics,  hearing  of 
masses,   and    leading    the    monastic    life.  Illustrated    by 

Luther's  attitude  toward  the  problem  of  salvation. 

Protestants  believed  that  they  were  reverting  to  the  insti- 
tutions and  beliefs  of  the  early  uncorrupted  church,  and  they 
placed  unlimited  confidence  in  the  clearness  and  sufficiency 
of  the  Bible. 

Schaff,  Ph.,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  VI,  eh.  i  (a  warmly  partisan 
Protestant  statement) ;  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  articles  "Protestantism" 
and  "  Eef ormation  " ;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th  ed.,  article  "Eeforma- 
tion  " ;  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge,  articles 
"Protestantism"  and  "Reformation,"  sections  i-ii ;  *Beard,  C,   The  Re- 


Undermining  of  the  Scholastic  St/stem  39 

formation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in  its  Relation  to  Modern  Thought  and 
Knowledge  (Hibbert  Lectures  for  1883),  chaps,  iii-iv;  Cambridge  Modern 
History,  I,  chap,  xlx  ("The  Eve  of  the  Reformation,"  byH.  C.Lea). 

Section  41.     Relation  of  the  Protestant  Revolt  to  Intel- 
lectual Progress. 

The  Protestant  Revolt  only  incidently  intellectual  in  char- 
acter. Extent  of  its  debt  to  classical  scholarship.  Its 
issues  mainly  mediaeval.  Luther  and  Calvin  base  their  theo- 
ries on  the  conception  of  man's  innate  and  absolute  badness  and 
incapacity  to  wiU  anything  pleasing  to  God.  Calvin's  stress 
on  the  seemingly  paralyzing  doctrine  of  predestination.  Prot- 
estant conception  of  the  Bible.  Luther's  denunciation  of  the 
"pretty  harlot,"  reason.  Protestants  shared  with  Roman 
Cathohcs  the  horror  of  "rationalists"  and  "freethinkers." 
The  leaders  of  both  parties  agreed  in  hampering  and  denounc- 
ing scientific  discoveries.  These  made  by  those  living  in 
CathoHc  and  Protestant  countries  alike,  who  have  commonly 
been  indifferent  to  religious  issues.  Gibbon's  masterly  sum- 
mary of  the  direct  and  incidental  effect  of  the  "  Reformation  " 
(Decline  and  Fall,  end  of  chap.  liv). 

The  early  Protestants  did  not  aim  consciously  at  progress, 
and  their  teachings  may  be  said  to  have  been  nine-tenths  con- 
servative and  one-tenth  reactionary. 

*Bear(i,  Ch.,  The  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in  its  Relation  to 
Modern  Thought  and  Knoivledge,  chap,  v;  *McGiffert,  A.  C,  Protestant 
Thought  before  Kant  (1911),  chaps,  i-viii  (admirable);  Hamack,  History  of 
Dogma,  Vol.  VII. 

Troelsch,  Protestantisches  Christenthnm  nnd  Kirche  der  Nenzeit,  in  "Kul- 
tur  der  Gegenwart,"  Teil  i,  Abt.  4,  erste  HaLfte,  1909.  In  the  same  Sam- 
melwerk,  is  Bezold,  Staat  und  (resellschaft  des  Reformationszeit,  1908.  Ber- 
ger,  A.  E.,  Die  Kulturaufgaben  der  Reformation,  2d  ed.,  1908,  an  elaborate 
prolegomenon.  Harnack,  Martin  Luther  in  seiner  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Ge- 
schichte  der  IVissenschaft  und  der  Bildung,  4th  ed.,  1910;  interesting  pamphlet. 

Section  43.     Witchcraft  and  the  Superstitions  underly- 
ing it. 

Protestants  retained  all  the  old  demon ology  and  gave  much 
prominence  to  the  devil.  The  belief  in  witchcraft  rested  on 


40  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

the  solid  foundations  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  The  older  European  heritage  reenforced  by  the 
Christians'  devil.         The  "  witches'  sabbath  "  of  Norse  origin. 

Witchcraft  in  its  modern  form  emerges  clearly  in  the  fifteenth 
century  (Heresy  of  the  Vaudois,  hence  voodoo,  hoodoo) .  Pope 
issues  (1484)  bull,  "  Summis  desiderantes,"  against  witches  in 
Germany.  Next  year  the  Malleus  maleficarum   (Witches' 

Hammer)  codifies  all  learning  in  regard  to  witches  and  the 
method  of  dealing  with  them.  Great  prevalence  of  witchcraft 
during  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  in  Protestant  and 
Catholic  countries  alike. 

Character  of  the  charges  brought  against  those  suspected  of 
witchcraft.  Illustrated  by  writings  of  Glanvil  and  Cotton 
Mather  (late  seventeenth  century).  Trial  of  those  suspected 
of  sorcery.  Torture  to  force  confession.  The  witch's  mark. 
Penalties,  burning  alive,  strangling,  hanging.  Tens  of  thou- 
sands of  innocent  persons  perish. 

Dr.  Wier's  attempt  to  refute  notion  of  witchcraft,  1565, 
brutally  answered  by  the  learned  Bodin  in  his  "  Demonology," 
1580;  Reginald  Scott's  '' Discovery  of  Witchcraft,"  1584,  had 
little  influence,  but  the  "Cautio  criminalis"  issued  by  Spe,  a 
Jesuit,  in  1631,  was  widely  read.  Those  who  tried  to  dis- 
credit witchcraft  denounced  as  "Sadducees"  and  atheists. 
Glanvil's  ''Saducismus  Triumphatus,"  1681,  Sinclair's  "Satan's 
Invisible  World,"  1685.  Cotton  Mather's  "Wonders  of  the 
Invisible  World"  sums  up  the  Salem  experiences  in  1692. 

*Lecky,  Bise  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,  chap,  i ;  Lowell,  J.  E.,  essay  on 
"Witchcraft,"  in  Anion;/  mi/  Books,  Vol.  I;  *Biirr,  George  L.,  The  Witch 
Pemecntions  (translations  and  reprints,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  4),  an  admirable  col- 
lection of  vivid  extracts  from  first  hand  material.  By  the  same,  Xarratives 
of  Witchcraft,  1914,  confined  to  American  colonies.  Notestein,  A  History 
of  Witchcraft  in  England,  1911.  The  earlier  phases  of  witchcraft  are  treated 
by  Lea,  H.  C,  History  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Vol.  EH,  chaps, 
vi-vii,  and  above  all,  Hansen,  J.,  Zauberwnhn,  Inquisition  und  Hexenprozess 
im  Mittelalter  (1900)  and  the  accompanying  QueUen  und  Untersuchungen  zur 
Geschichte  des  Hexenwahns  (1901),  with  many  extracts  from  inaccessible 
sources. 


Part    VI.       BIRTH     OF    THE    MODERN     SCIENTIFIC 
SPIRIT. 

Section  43.     Discovery  of  the  Vastness  and  Order  of  the 
Universe. 

The  conceptions  of  man  and  of  God  closely  associated  with 
the  conception  of  the  cosmos.  Christian- Aristotelian-Ptole- 
maic conception  of  the  universe.  The  theory  of  transparent 
spheres,  revolving  about  the  earth,  in  which  the  heavenly  bodies 
were  fixed.  Primum  mobile.  Eternal  circular  motions 

contrasted  with  the  transient  rectilinear  motions  of  the  earth. 
The  exalted  nature  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  were  not 
made  of  the  four  elements  of  which  all  earthly  things  were 
composed. 

Roger  Bacon's  ideas  of  the  distance  and  size  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  —  Terra  non  habet  aUquam  quantitatem  sensibilem 
respectu  coeh,  sicut  probat  Ptolemaeus.  Universe  limited 
and  fixed  in  absolute  space.  The  ** Christian  Epic"  essen- 
tially geocentric  in  its  presuppositions. 

Copernicus'  De  Revolntionihus  orbium  coelestiuni,  Libri  VI, 
1543.  Preface,  probably  by  Osiander;  Copernicus'  own 
introduction  acknowledges  his  debt  to  ancient  philosophers. 
Still  beheved  in  fixed  starry  sphere.  His  discovery  had 
little   immediate   effect   on   prevaihng   notions.  Giordano 

Bruno  (1548-1600)  made  it  his  chief  business  to  think  out 
and  set  forth  in  Latin  and  Italian  the  imphcations  of  the 
discovery  of  Copernicus.  "  On  the  Immeasurable  and  the 

Countless":  single  law,  single  force,  infinite  God,  infinite 
universe,  no  absolute  motion,  no  center,  no  up,  no  down,  no 
light,  no  heavy  —  all  things  relative.  Bruno  burned  by  the 
inquisition  at  Rome. 

Kepler  (1571-1630)  and  his  discovery  of  the  elliptical  orbits 
of  the  planets.  GalHeo  (1564-1642).  His  telescope  (1609) 
speedily  improved  so  as  to  magnify  32  diameters.  His  atti- 
tude toward  the  Copernican  theory,  which  was  condemned  by 


42  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

Roman  inquisition  1616.  ''  Dialogo  dei  due  massimi  sistemi 
del  mondo,"  1632,  and   G-alileo's   condemnation.  Galileo's 

chief  discoveries  were  in  physics  and  mechanics. 

Isaac  Newton  (1642-1727)  proved  that  the  laws  of  falling 
bodies  apply  to  the  heavens.  This  makes  a  deep  impres- 
sion and  finally  the  newer  conceptions  of  the  universe  began 
to  be  popularized — for  example,  in  Pope's  ''Universal  Prayer" 
(1737). 

Berry,  A.,  SJwrt  History  of  Astronomy,  1899;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
11th  ed.,  Articles,  Copernicus,  Bruno,  Kepler,  and  Galileo;  Hoffding,  His- 
tory of  Modern  Philosophy,  I,  pp.  *103-148  and  167-183 ;  Galileo,  Dialogues 
concerning  two  new  sciences,  tr.  by  Crew  and  Salvio,  1914;  White,  A.  D., 
History  of  the  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology,  Vol.  I,  chap,  iii;  Owen,  J., 
Skeptics  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  chap,  iv  (on  Bruno). 

Section  44.     Exploration  of  the  Earth. 

Ptolemy's  "Geography"  remains  the  standard  in  spite  of 
discoveries  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Gradual  progi-ess  down  the  African  coast  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Diaz    rounds   the   Cape   of    Good    Hope,   1486. 

Columbus,  as  he  believed,  reaches  "The  Indies"  by  sailing 
west,  1492,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  really  reaches  India  by 
sailing  around  Africa,  1498.  Portuguese  visit  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  1511.  Magellan's  ship  circumnavigates  the 
globe   (1519-1522).  The   question  what  influences,   other 

than  commercial  and  industrial,  did  the  contact  with  new 
and,  in  some  cases,  highly  civilized  peoples  exercise  on  Euro- 
pean thought?  Intellectual  effects  not  conspicuous  until 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  chaps,  i-ii  (by  E.J.Payne);  Jacobs,  J., 
The  Story  of  Geographical  Discovery. 

Section  45.     Montaigne  (1533-1592)  and  his  Perception 
of  the  Varied  Interest  of  the  Purely  Human. 

Montaigne's  "Essais"  (Books  I-II,  1580,  and  III,  1588)  the 
first  permanently  popular   French   work.  "Je   suis  moy 

mesme  la  matiere  de  mon  livre."  His  superb  nonchalance. 
His  attitude  toward  the  classical  authors,  which  he  assimilates 


Birth  of  Modern  Scientific  Spirit  43 

rather  than  imitates,  and  uses  to  reenforce  his  own  ideas. 
Affection  for  Plutarch  and  Seneca.  His  appreciation  of  the 
inconstancy  and  relativity  of  all  our  thoughts  and  conduct. 
Endless  variety  the  very  essence  of  nature,  and  the  inculcation 
of  this  the  chief  end  of  education.  "There  is  as  much 
difference  between  us  and  ourselves  as  between  us  and  others." 
We  can  know  only  our  own  perceptions.  ''Que  sais-je?" 
His  unbounded  tolerance  and  distaste  for  dogmatism.  His 
God  no  more  exacting  than  he.  Custom  and  law  highly 
artificial  but  properly  binding  on  the  outer  man.  Extra- 
ordinary popularity  of  the  Essays,  especially  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

There  is  little  use  in  reading  about  Montaigne  when  he  writes  better  of 
himself  than  any  one  else  can.  Of  his  "  Essays,"  which  are  easily  obtained 
either  in  Cotton's  translation,  revised  by  Hazlitt,  or  in  Florio's,  that  on 
*"  The  Education  of  Children"  (Bk.  I,  25),  and  that  *"0n  Books"  (Bk.  II, 
10),  are  perhaps  the  best  worth  reading  for  our  purposes.  Hoffding, 
History  of  Modern  rhilosoplnj,  Vol.  I,  pp.  26-33. 

Section  46.    Francis  Bacon  and  "The  Kingdom  of  Man." 

Lord  Bacon  the  ''buccinator"  of  experimental  and  applied 
modern  science.  His  high  connections;  plans  a  " Temporis 
partus  maximus"  about  1582.  His  public  career.  First 
edition  of  the  "Essays,"  1597;  "Advancement  of  Learning," 
1605.  His  political  disgrace,  1621.  His  "Magna  Instau- 
ratio"  of  which  the  Novum  Organum  is  a  part.  His  lively 
appreciation  of  the  existing  obstacles  to  scientific  advance; 
the  idols  of  the  tribe,  cave,  market-place,  and  theater.  "We 
are  the  ancients."  Necessity  of  escaping  from  the  scholastic 
method  of  "tumbling  up  and  down  in  our  reasons  and  con- 
ceits," and  studying  the  world  about  us.  Undreamed  of 
achievements  possible  if  only  the  right  method  of  research  be 
followed.  Bacon's  "New  Atlantis"  with  its  House  of  Sol- 
omon. Bacon  used  his  vast  and  varied  literary  resources  to 
spread  abroad  the  spirit  of  modern  scientific  progress  and  the 
distrust  for  ancient  authority.  By  formally  according  the- 
ology the  supremacy  among  the  sciences  and  eliminating  the 


44  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

consideration  of  final  causes  from  the  field  of  scientific  research 
he  avoids  religious  criticism.  Bacon's  neglect  of  contem- 
poraneous discoveries  of  Kepler,  Bruno,  and  Galileo.  Rejects 
the  Copernican  system.  His  feeble  "  Sylva  sylvarum."  Dra- 
per's savage  attack  on  him  in  his  ''Intellectual  History." 

*Baeon,  Advancement  of  Learning,  especially  book  i  (excellent  edition 
with  Life  of  Bacon  in  Clarendon  Press  Series ;  cheaper  edition  in  "  The 
World's  Classics"  series,  also  issued  by  the  Clarendon  Press  and  containing 
The  New  Atlantis);  *Xovum  Orf/annm,  especially  book  i ;  *H6ffding,  History 
of  Modern  Philosophy,  I,  184-206;  'Article  "Bacon"  in  the  11th  ed.  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  The  Philosophical  Works  of  Francis  Bacon,  edited 
by  J.  M.  Robertson  (1  vol.,  1905),  is  an  excellent  inexpensive  edition. 

Section  47.     Descartes  and  the  New  Philosophy. 

Descartes  (1596-1650),  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  goes  to  the 
wars  for  worldly  experience.  Later  scholarly  retirement  in 
HoUand,  1629-1649.  His  ''Discours  de  la  Methode"  (1637) 
in  which  he  proposed  to  reach  the  truth  through  analysis  and 
clear  ideas,  on  the  assumption  that  God  will  not  deceive. 
His  expression  ''innate"  ideas  later  misinterpreted.  His 

mechanistic  theory  of  the  universe  —  Terram  totumque  hunc 
mundum  instar  machinae  descripsi  (including  man's  body  and 
the  animals,  which  he  held  to  be  automatons).  His  funda- 
mental interest  in  mathematics.  His  geometry  (Cartesian 
coordinates)  and  its  admirable  clarity.  His  claim  to  origin- 
ality and  his  rejection  of  all  authority.  His  anxiety  to  con- 
ceal his  beUef  in  the  movement  of  the  earth  —  "Bene  vixit 
qui  bene  latuit." 

*Descartes,  Discourse  on  Method;  *H6ffding,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  212-241 ;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  llthed.,  article  "Descartes." 

Section  48.     Conditions  and  Achievements  of  Scientific 
Research  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Obstacles  to  scientific  advance:  the  universities  still  domi- 
nated by  Aristotle;  the  theological  faculties;  the  censorship 
of  the  press  exercised  by  both  church  and  state ;  the  role  of 
the  Jesuits. 


Birth  of  Modern  Scientific  Spirit  45 

Development  of  ** philosophic  societies"  of  amateurs  who 
studied  experimentally  physics,  anatomy,  etc.  Development 
of  a  lay  public  interested  in  science.  Bacon,  Descartes,  and 
Galileo  each  appeal  to  public  in  his  mother  tongue,  as  well  as 
in  Latin.         New  science  tends  to  take  modern  popular  form. 

Origin  of  the  Royal  Society,  formally  founded  in  1662 ;  its 
"  Transactions."  French  Academy  of  Sciences  (1666) ;  The 
''Journal  des  Savants"  began  to  appear  in  1665.  Paris 

Astronomical  observatory,  1667,  and  Greenwich  Observatory, 
1676.  Halley  forecasts  the  reappearance  of  the  comet  of 
1682  (period  of  76  years).  Instruments  for  scientific  re- 
search :  Logarithms  invented  by  Napier  and  Briggs  about 
1616 ;  Descartes'  analytical  geometry  (1637) ;  Leibnitz  pub- 
lishes his  method  of  calculus  in  1675.  The  telescope;  Tor- 
ricelli's  barometer,  1643 ;  the  air  pump ;  Huy gens'  pendulum 
clock,  1657;  Leeuwenhoek  (1632-1723)  uses  miscroscope  to 
discover  animalculae,  blood  corpuscles,  bacteria,  etc.  Fahr- 
enheit's thermometer  (1709). 

*Ornstein,  Martha,  BSlc  of  the  Sdentific  Societies  in  the  Seventeenth  Centuri/, 
1913  (Columbia  Doctor's  dissertation) ,  excellent,  with  full  bibliography. 
Encyclopaedia  Britanniea,  11th  ed.,  article  "Academies";  Histoire  Gen- 
eral, edited  by  Lavisse  and  Rambaud,  Vol.  V,  pp.  450  sqq.,  and  VI,  pp. 
394  sqq.,  good  chapters  by  Paul  Tannery ;  Dannemann,  F.,  Die  Xaturivissen- 
schaften  in  ihrer  Entwicklung,  Vol.  11,  1911;  Garland  und  Traumiiller, 
Geschichte  der  physikalischen  Experimentierkunst,  1899. 

Section  49.   Development  of  Toleration  and  the  Freedom 
of  the  Press. 

The  intolerance  of  the  Church  a  natui-al  result  of  its  state- 
like organization  and  claims.  Its  doctrine  of  exclusive  sal- 
vation and  its  conception  of  heresy  both  sanctioned  by  the 
State.  Doubt  and  error  regarded  as  sinful.  Beginnings 
of  censorship  of  the  press  after  the  invention  of  printing. 
Licensing  by  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities.  The  Tri- 
dentine  Index  of  1564.  Indices  Ubrorum  expurgatorum  et 
proliihitorum.         Fierce  edicts  issued  in  France. 

Protestants  of  sixteenth  century  accept  the  theory  of  intol- 


46  History  of  the  Intellectual  Glass 

erance  (except  Anabaptists  and  Socinians).  Intolerance  in 
England.  Long  Parliament  ratifies  system  of  Star  Chamber, 
1643,  and  calls  forth  Milton's  "Areopagitica,"  for  the  liberty  of 
unlicensed  printing  (1644).  Chillingworth's  "The  Religion 
of  Protestants  a  Safe  Way  to  Salvation"  (1637)  and  the  doc- 
trine of  adiophora  or  things  indifferent.  Jeremy  Taylor's 
"Liberty  of  Prophesying"  (1647). 

Situation     in     England     after     Restoration.  Glanvil's 

"Vanity  of  Dogmatizing,"  1661;  Death  penalty  for  heresy 
removed  1677;  Bayle's  "Compel  them  to  come  in,"  1686; 
Locke's  first  "Letter  on  Toleration,"  1689;  Censorship  allowed 
to  lapse,  1694,  and  Act  of  Toleration,  1695  (excepting  Catholics 
and   Unitarians).  Anthony  Collins,    "Discourse  of   Free- 

thinking,"  1713.  Parliament  continues  occasionally  to  con- 
demn books. 

Symonds,  J.  A.,  Benaissance  in  Italy,  The  Catholic  Reaction,  part  I,  chap, 
iii;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th  ed.,  article  "Press  Law";  *Milton, 
Areopagitica,  edited  by  Hales  (Clarendon  Press  Series),  with  historical  in- 
troduction; Putnam,  G.  H.,  The  Censorship  of  the  Church  of  Home,  1906-7. 
The  best  general  treatment  of  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  *Lecky, 
Else  and  Influence  of  Rationalism,  chap,  iv,  part  II.  Bury,  J.  B.,  A  History 
of  Freedom  of  Thought  (Home  Univ.  Lib.),  excellent  brief  account.  Schaflf, 
Ph.,  The  Progress  of  Religious  Freedom  as  shown  in  the  History  of  Toleration 
Acts,  1889. 


Section  150.     The  Decline  of  Belief  in  the  Miraculous : 
The  English  Deists. 

Christian  conception  of  "revealed"  truth,  especially  in  the 
Bible.  Revelation   supported   by  miracles   and   prophesy. 

Protestants  reject  mediaeval  miracles.  Freedom  of  thought 
in  England  permits  criticism  of  the  older  system  of  belief  in 
the  hght  of  new  scientific  knowledge. 

Herbert  of  Cherbury  (died  1648)  the  "  first  Deist."  His 
five  principles  of  natural  religion  set  forth  in  his  Religion  of 
the  Gentiles  (completed  in  1645).  He  rejects  revelation. 
Charles  Blount  (died  1693)  formulates  Deism  and  seeks  to 


Birth  of  Modern  Scientific  Spirit  47 

discredit  revelation  and  miracles.  Locke's  Beasonahleness  of 
Chrisiianity  (1695)  and  Toland's  Christianity  not  mysterious 
(1696).  Spinoza  in  his  Tractatus  Theologico-PoUticus  (1670) 
had  laid  the  foundations  for  what  would  now  be  called  *'  the 
higher  criticism." 

Shaftsbury  (1671-1713)  divorces  morality  from  religion 
and  theology.  Bitterness  of  Woolston,  who  in  his  ''Dis- 
courses," 1727-29,  violently  attacks  biblical  miracles.  Tindal's 
Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a  Bepublica- 
tion  of  the  Religion  of  Nature  (1730).  Pope's  "Universal 
Prayer"  and  his  ''Essay  on  Man"  (1732-34)  dedicated  to  the 
deist  Bolingbroke.  Butler's  Analogy,  1737.  Hume's  essay 
on  Miracles,  1748,  and  his  Natural  History  of  Religion,  1757. 
[For  conservative  reaction  against  Rationalism  see  below, 
section  53.] 

*Leeky,  Rise  and  Influence  of  Rationalism,  chap,  ii;  *McGiffert,  Protestant 
Thought  before  Kant,  chap,  x;  Benn,  A.W.,  History  of  English  Rationalism 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (2  vols.,  1906),  Vol.  I,  chap,  iii;  Stephen,  Leslie, 
History  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vol.  I;  Leland,  John, 
A  View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers  (2  vols.,  1754-6),  an  old,  hostile 
review  of  the  movement. 


Section  51.     The  French  Philosophes. 

Voltaire  (1694-1778)  and  his  extraordinary  reputation  and 
influence.  Sojourn  in  England,  1726-29.  His  Philosophic 
Letters  on  the  English  (burned  by  order  of  the  Parlement  of 
Paris)  well  illustrates  his  debt  to  the  English.  John  Morley's 
estimate  of  Voltaire.  Vast  range  of  his  literary  appeal. 
The  Philosophic   Dictionary,    1765.  Diderot   (1713-1784). 

The  Encyclopaedia   (1751-1765)  and  the  obstacles  which  its 
editors    encountered.  Its    nature    scientific    rather    than 

polemic.         D'Holbach  and  the  atheists. 

*Morley,  John,  Voltaire,  especially  chaps,  i,  ii,  and  v;  the  same,  Diderot 
and  the  Encyclopaedists,  2  vols. ;  Faguet,  Le  ISieme  Steele;  Voltaire,  Lettres 
philosophiqnes  sur  VAnglais,  edited  by  Lanson,  2  vols.,  1909,  with  elaborate 
notes ;  Lange,  History  of  Materialism,  Vol.  II,  chaps,  i-iii ;  Gushing,  Max  P., 
Baron  d'Holbach,  19U. 


48  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 


Section  52.     Development  of  the  Idea  of  Progress. 

Excessive    conservatism    of    primitive    peoples.  Greeks 

speculated  on  the  origin  of  things,  but  did  not  have  a  con- 
ception of  the  possibility  of  indefinite  progress.  The  He- 
brew Prophets.  The  Christian  conception  of  creation  and 
eschatology.  Progress  of  man  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  almost  altogether  un- 
conscious. 

Lord  Bacon's  conception  of  betterment  through  the  acquisi- 
tion and  application  of  natural  science.  Idea  of  progress 
implied  a  decline  in  the  strength  of  ancient  authority. 
Descartes'  independence  of  the  past.  Swift's  Battle  of  the 
Books ;  Fontenelle's  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  (1683)  aims  to  dis- 
credit authority  of  classical  antiquity.  Herder's  Ideen  zur 
Geschichte  der  Menschheit  (1784).  Condorcet's  Tableau  his- 
torique  des  progres  de  V esprit  humain  (1793). 

Flint,  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  History,  especially  pp.  87-104 ;  Del- 
vaille,  J.,  Essai  sur  Vhistoire  de  I'idee  de  Progres  jiisqu'a  la  fn  du  XVIIIieme 
SiMe,  1910. 


Section  53.    Reaction  Against  the  Thought  of  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century. 

How  Hume  awoke  Kant  from  his  dogmatic  slumber; 
Herder's  Auch  eine  Philosophie  der  Oeschichte  (1774)  criti- 
cizes spirit  of  the  philosophes  and  tends  to  "romanticism." 
Montesquieu  {Spirit  of  Laws,  1748)  essentially  conservative; 
Rousseau's  return  to  the  simple  life;  The  German  "Romantic" 
philosophers.  Fichte  and  his  theory  of  nationahty;  Hegel 
(1770-1831)  and  his  Philosophy  of  History. 

Defense  of  the  Christian  Epic;  Christian  apologetics  in 
England;  Paley's  View  of  the  Evidence  of  Christianity,  1794; 
Courses  in  Christian  evidences  in  American  colleges;  The 
Bridgewater  Treatise  (1833-40).  John  Wesley  (1703-1791) 
and   the    Methodist  religious   revival ;    founding   of    Baptist 


Birth  of  Modern  Scientific  Spirit  49 

Foreign  Missionary  Society,  1792,  and  of  the  Religious  Tract 
Society,  1799. 

The  Tractarian  movement  at  Oxford ;  John  Henry  Newman 
(1801-1890),  Affirmation  of  the  Catholic  dogmas  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  (1854)  and  of  Papal  Infallibility  (1870) ; 
The  papal  syllabus  of  1864.  The  platonic  tendencies  of 
Emerson;   Christian  Science. 

*Dewey,  John,  German  Philosophy  and  Politics,  1915 ;  *McGiffert,  The  Rise 
of  Modern  BeUgious  Ideas,  1915;  Hoffding,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy, 
books  vi  and  viii;  Morley,  J.,  Rousseau;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th 
ed.,  articles  "Kant,"  "Hegel,"  "Wesleyan  Methodism,"  "Missions,"  etc.; 
Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  chap,  viii  (The  Reli- 
gious Revival);  Wesley's  famous  "Journal";  *Benn,  History  of  English 
Rationalism  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  chaps,  v  and  viii  (excellent  for  our 
purpose);  Denziger,  Enchiridion  (S'ymfeotorMw,  for  the  Catholic  formulation 
of  dogma. 


Part  VII.     THE   CHIEF   NOVEL   ELEMENTS   IN  CON- 
TEMPORANEOUS INTELLECTUAL  LIFE. 

Section  54.     The  New  Social  Basis  of  Intellectual  Life: 
Democracy. 

Democracy,  political,  industrial,  and  intellectual.  Oreek 
conception  of  democracy  presupposed  slavery  (Aristotle). 
The  Roman  Res  pnhlica.  Disappearance  of  slavery  and 
serfdom.  Development  of  European  kingship.  Divine 

right  of  kings  —  defended  by  James  I  and  Bossuet.  Posi- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  Mariana  and  Suarez.  Conception  of 
pohtical  liberty  develops  in  England  in  seventeenth  century. 
England  the  model  of  free  government  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury.        Character  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Rousseau's  Social  Contract  (1761)  and  his  idea  of  the 
"general  will."  The  "people"  rarely  conceived  as  the  whole 
adult  male  population.  Original  limitation  of  the  franchise 
in  the  United  States.  The  French  Declaration  of  the  Rights 
of  Man,  1789.  Manhood  suffrage  established  in  France 
1793.  Gradual  extension  of  suffrage  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. Methods  of  neutralizing  it.  The  question  of  votes 
for  women.         Mill,  On  the  Subjection  of  Women  (1869). 

Clear  tendency  toward  further  developments  of  democracy — 
the  referendum,  initiative,  and  recall.  The  democratic  ex- 
periment essentially  new  and  implies  a  fundamentally  new 
conception  of  government  and  the  citizen. 

*Seherger,  G.  L.,  The  Evolution  of  Modern  Liberty,  1904;  *Lecky,  Bation- 
alism  in  Europe,  chap,  v,  on  the  secularization  of  politics;  Figgis,  J.  N., 
The  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  1896;  Gooch,  G.  P.,  English  Denioeratic  Ideas  in 
the  Seventeenth  Century,  1898;  Dunning,  W.  A.,  A  History  of  Folitical  The- 
ory, from  Luther  to  Montesquieu ;  Rose,  T.  H.,  Rise  of  Democracy,  1897  (re- 
lates to  England  in  the  19th  century)  ;  Dewey,  John,  German  Philosophy 
and  Politics,  1915;  Barker,  E.,  Political  Thought  in  England  (Spencer  to 
present),  1915  (Home  University  Library). 


Elements  of  Contemporaneous  Intellectual  Life  51 

Section   55.      The  New  Historical  Basis  of  Intellectual 
Life:   The  Doctrine  of  Evolution. 

Discovery  of  the  great  age  of  the  earth;  James  Button's 
Theory  of  the  Earth  (1795);  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology 
(1830-33).  Gradual    development    of    the    evolutionary 

theory.  Lamarck's   Philosophie   zoologique   (1809);    Cham- 

ber's Vestiges  of  the  Natural  History  of  Creation  (1846) ; 
Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  1859. 

Character  of  the  opposition  to  the  evolutionary  theory. 
Popular  confusion  of  ''  Darwinism"  with  "  evolution."  Revo- 
lutionary effects  of  the  new  point  of  view.  Does  away  with 
conception  of  fixed  species  (Platonic  ideas)  that  had  previously 
dominated  speculation.  The  genetic  method  adopted  in  all 
the  organic  sciences,  including  the  newer  social  sciences. 
Problem  of  adjusting  History  to  the  discoveries  of  the  past 
fifty  years. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th  ed.,  article  "Evolution";  Jndd,  J.  W., 
The  Coming  of  Evolution,  1910;  Darwin's  own  historical  sketch  of  the  evo- 
lutionary idea  in  the  later  editions  of  The  Origin  of  Species;  *Merz,  J.  T., 
History  of  European  Thought  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol.  11  (1903)  — 
chap,  ix,  on  the  genetic  view  of  nature,  is  admirable.  Life  and  Letters  of 
Charles  Dartcin,  Vol.  I,  chap,  xiv,  by  Huxley,  on  the  reception  of  the  Origin 
of  Species,  and  Vol.  11,  chaps,  i-ii,  containing  letters  and  reviews  relating 
to  the  work.  Fifty  Years  of  Darwinism,  1909,  a  collection  of  essays  by 
eminent  scientists. 

Section   56.      The  New   Economic   Basis  of  Intellectual 
Life :    The  Industrial  Revolution. 

During  the  past  two  centuries  the  apphcation  of  scientific 
discoveries  to  daily  life  has  revolutionized  our  methods  of 
supplying  our  economic  needs,  our  social  and  intellectual  life, 
and  the  whole  range  of  the  relations  of  mankind.  Iron,  coal, 
and  steam,  essential  to  the  development  of  machinery  on  a 
large  scale;  machinery  has  in  turn  begotten  the  modern 
factory  with  its  vast  organized  labor,  the  modern  city,  and, 
finally,  our  well  nigh  perfect  means  of  rapid  human  intercom- 
munication. Watt    patents  his  improved    steam   engine, 


52  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

1769;  Fulton's  steamboat,  1809;  Stockton  and  Darlington 
railroad  opened,  1825 ;  Penny  post  in  England,  1839  ;  Morse's 
electric  telegraph,  1844 ;  the  Atlantic  cable  successfully  laid, 
1866;  the  telephone,  1876. 

The  advance  of  science  and  its  possibilities ;  the  tremendous 
increase  in  the  production  of  wealth  and  the  growing  inter- 
dependence of  nations  have  opened  up  a  vast  range  of  specu- 
lation in  regard  to  the  betterment  of  mankind  through  the 
abolition  or  reduction  of  poverty,  ignorance,  disease,  and  war. 
Contrast  between  the  current  views  of  the  social  significance 
of  poverty  and  those  held  previously;  the  Peace  movement. 

The  Nineteenth  Century,  a  Bevieiv  of  Progress ;  articles  reprinted  from  the 
"N.Y.  Evening  Post";  Byrn,  E.W.,  Progress  of  Invention  in  the  Xineteenth 
Century;  Gibbins,  Economic  and  Industrial  Progress  of  the  Century,  1903; 
The  Progress  of  the  Century,  1901,  contains  excellent  reviews  of  the  changes 
in  the  nineteenth  century;  Seligman,  Economic  Interpretation  of  History. 
Moore,  Origin  of  Matter  and  Life  (Home  University  Library);  Duncan,  The 
New  Knotcledge,  deals  clearly  with  radio-activity ;  Cochrane,  Modern  In- 
dustrial Progress,  1904;  Wells,  D.  A.,  Economic  Changes,  1899;  Lankester, 
E.  Ray,  The  Kingdom  of  Man,  chap,  ii  (chief  discoveries,  1881-1906) ; 
Trail,  Social  England,  Vol.  VI,  passim ;  Lecky,  Rise  and  Influence  of  Ration- 
alism, chap,  vi  (Industrial  history  of  Rationalism). 


Section    57.        Socialism,     the    Religion    of    Industrial 
Democracy. 

Socialism,  the  religion  of  industrial  democracy.  Earlier 
"Utopian"  sociahsm.  The   Communist  Manifesto    (1848). 

Karl  Marx  (d.  1883);  "Class  struggle"  and  the  public  control 
of  the  means  of  production.  The  English  Fabians.  The 
socialists  emphasize  the  gross  injustice,  reckless  waste,  need- 
less suffering,  and  incredible  stupidity  of  the  existing  econo- 
mic and  social  organization.  Current  attempts  to  alleviate 
abuses  through  legislation.  A  small  portion  only  of  human 
capacity  and  energy  utilized  under  present  system. 

*Kirkup,  History  of  Socialism,  new  edition  by  Pease,  1913;  Wells,  H.  G., 
Neio  Worlds  for  Old,  1908;  Schaeffle,  The  Qnintessence  of  Socialism,  by  a 
fair  minded  unbeliever;  Spargo,  John,  Socialism,  1906;  Patten,  Simon, 
The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  1907;    Seager,  H.  R.,  Social  Insurance,  A 


JElements  of  Contemporaneous  Intellectual  Life  53 

Program  of  Social  Reform,  1910;  Simkhovitch,  V.  G.,  Marksism  versus 
Socialism  ;  Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  especially  part  III;  Webb,  Sidney  and 
Beatrice,  Industrial  Democracy,  1902;  Weyl,  W.  E.,  The  New  Democracy ; 
Redfield,  Wm.  C,   The  New  Industrial  Day,  1912. 


Section  58.     Speculation  Concerning  Man's  Bodily  Wel- 
fare. 

Older  conception  of  disease  as  caused  by  the  devil ;  Intro- 
duction of  vaccination,  1796;  Anaesthetics,  1846-7;  Bacteria 
named,  1863 ;  Development  of  the  germ  theory  of  disease  by 
Pasteur  and  Koch ;  aseptic  surgery,  1870-80. 

Older  conceptions  of  insanity ;  Exorcism ;  Modern  study  of 
insanity  and  of  abnormal  psychology;  Hypnotism  and  hysteria; 
Psychiatry  and  Freud's  study  of  Dreams ;  Question  of  heredity ; 
Eugenics  or  human  breeding;  Criminology;  The  alcohol  prob- 
lem; Public  sanitation. 

The  Progress  of  the  Century,  articles  on  advance  of  medicine;  Daven- 
port, C.  B.,  Eugenics,  the  Science  of  Human  Improvement  by  Better  Breeding, 
1910;  Kellicott,  I.  E.,  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution:  an  Outline  of 
the  Science  of  Eugenics,  1911;  Pearson,  Karl,  Grammar  of  Science,  chap,  xi; 
Whetham,  The  Family  and  the  Nation,  1909;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
11th  edition,  articles  "Temperance"  and  "Hypnotism";  Myers,  F.  W.  H., 
Human  Personality  (2  vols.,  1903),  for  the  range  of  abnormal  psychologi- 
cal phenomena;  White,  A.  D.,  Warfare  of  Science  and  Theology,  chap.  tHii 
( "  Miracles  to  Medicine"),  xiv,  xv,  and  xvi;  Prince,  Morton,  Dissociation  of 
a  Personality,  1906;  Coriot,  I.  H.,  Abnormal  Psychology,  1910;  Freud,  S., 
Interpretation  of  Dreams,  1913.  Gordon,  Ernest,  The  Anti-Alcoholic  Move- 
ment in  Europe. 


Section  59.     The  Newer  Social  Sciences. 

Modern  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  social 
sciences.  Development  of  Political  Economy  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century;  The  French  Physiocrats;  Turgot;  Hume; 
Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  1776.  The  English  Clas- 
sical School;  Mill's  Principles  of  Political  Economy.  Karl 
Marx.  Tendency  of   Political  Economy  to  become  more 

democratic. 


54  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

Development  of  Anthropology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
Discovery  of  the  vast  age  of  mankind ;  the  study  of  primitive 
peoples  and  its  importance.         Philology ;  The  Arian  Theory. 

Recent  appearance  of  Comparative  (Animal)  Psychology; 
of  Social  and  Functional  Psychology. 

Origin  and  aims  of  SociologJ^  Socializing  of  Ethics  as 
well  as  of  Psychology'.  General  nature  of  the  "pragmatic" 
tendencies  in  philosophy.  Constantly  increasing  emphasis 
on  the  social  and  historical  aspects  of  the  various  branches  of 
philosophy. 

Revolution  in  fiction  during  the  past  half  century.  Con- 
trast between  Thackeray  and  Dickens,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Bernard  Shaw  and  H.  G.  Wells  on  the  other. 

Ingram,  History  of  Political  Economy  ;  Haddon,  History  of  Anthropology ; 
Small,  A.  W.,  The  Meaning  of  Social  Science  (1910);  Sociological  Papers 
(Macmillan  Co.,  1905),  very  interesting  discussions  by  leading  representa- 
tives of  the  social  sciences;  James,  William,  Pragmatism ;  Schiller,  T.C.  S., 
Humanism,  1903  ;  especially  chap,  ii  on  "useless"  knowledge.  Dewey  and 
Tufts,  Ethics  —  an  excellent  example  of  the  tendency  to  socialize  the  theory 
of  conduct;  Bernard  Shaw's  introduction  to  Three  Plays  by  Brieiix.  Rob- 
inson, J.  H.,  The  New  History,  chap,  iii,  "  The  New  Allies  of  History." 


Section  6o.     Problem  of  readjusting  Education  to  New 
Knowledge  and  New  Needs. 

Educational  ideals  of  the  Greeks.  The  "Liberal  arts"; 
prolonged  enthusiasm  for  rhetoric  and  oratory ;  the  Scholastic 
ideal;  origin  of  the  "classical"  course. 

Former  close  association  of  all  education  with  the  Church ; 
modern  process  of  secularization,  democratization,  and  state 
support.  Ability  of  all  classes  to  read  and  write  promises 
soon  to  be  general  throughout  the  world ;  novelty  and  import- 
ance of  this.  Development  of  technical  and  industrial  edu- 
cation; higher  education  of  women. 

Question  of  the  fate  of  older  educational  system  based  upon 
the  ideal  of  the  "liberal  arts,"  the  "classics,"  and  confidence 
in   "training  the   mind"   to   abstract  reasoning.  Recom- 

mended  by   its  inexpensiveness.  Obstacles   to   readjust- 


Elements  of  Contemporaneous  Intellectual  lAfe  55 

ment  presented  by  consecrated  tradition  and  by  the  now 
questioned  confidence  in  the  miscellaneous  disciplinary  value 
of  the  ancient  languages  and  mathematics.  Our  present 
departmental  system  based  upon  a  scientific  rather  than  edu- 
cational classification  of  subjects.  G-rave  effects  of  vested 
rights  in  hampering  experiment  and  readjustment.  As  yet 
our  education  has  not  been  brought  into  close  relation  with 
prevailing  conditions  or  our  ever  increasing  knowledge. 

While  there  are  numerous  books  —  for  example,  Flexner,  A.,  The  Ameri- 
can College,  1908;  Wendell,  B.,  The  Mystery  of  Education,  —  and  still  more 
numerous  articles  harshly  attacking  our  higher  education  and  suggesting 
reforms,  few  or  none  of  their  authors  attempt  the  difficult  task  of  sketching 
out  a  fundamental  readjustment  to  meet  present  conditions.  Efforts  to 
bring  habits  of  thinking  up  to  date  are  made  by  Wallace,  Graham,  The 
Great  Society ;  Lippmann,  W.,  Preface  to  Politics  and  Drift  and  Mastery; 
Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn,  The  Schools  of  To-morrow,  1915 ;  Thorndike, 
E.  L.,  Education,  1912,  judicious  and  suggestive;  Weeks,  A.D.,  The  Educa- 
tion of  To-morrotv,  The  adaptation  of  School  Curricula  to  Economic  Democracy. 


Section  6i.      The   Conservative  Spirit  in  the  Light  of 
Intellectual  History. 

In  human  history  man's  nature  has  probably  changed  but 
slightly;  nurture  (culture)  has  however  produced  the  most 
extraordinary  and  varied  effects,  which  are  not  uncommonly 
mistaken  for  nature.  Culture  cannot  be  transmitted  heredi- 
tarily but  can  be  accumulated  through  education  and  modified 
indefinitely. 

Primitive  natural  reverence  for  the  familiar  and  habitual 
greatly  reenforced  by  religion  and  law.  Natural  conserva- 
tism of  all  professions.  Those  who  suffer  most  from  exist- 
ing institutions  commonly  helplessly  accept  the  situation  as 
inevitable. 

Position  of  the  conservative ;  he  urges  the  impossibility  of 
altering  ''human  nature"  and  warns  against  the  disasters  of 
revolution.  Recent  emergence  of  the  radical.  His  early 
dreams  now  realized  beyond  his  wildest  expectations.  Maet- 
erlinck's theory  of  radicalism.         History  would  seem  to  dis- 


56  History  of  the  Intellectual  Class 

credit  conservatism  completely  as  a  working  principle  in  view 
of  the  vast  achievements  of  mankind  in  the  recent  past  and  of 
the  possibilities  which  open  before  us. 

Dickinson,  G.  Lowes,  Justice  and  Liberty,  1909 ;  Maeterlinck,  essays  on 
"Our  Social  Duty"  and  "Our  Anxious  Morality"  in  the  volume  called 
Measure  of  the  Hours ;  Lankester,  E.  Ray,  The  Kingdom  of  Man,  chap,  i, 
on  "  Nature's  Insurgent  Son" ;  Wells,  H.  G.,  First  and  Last  Things ;  Morley, 
John,  On  Compromise ;  Robinson,  J.  H.,  The  Xew  History,  chap,  viii  on 
"The  Conservative  Spirit  in  the  Light  of  History." 


THE  MARION  PRESS 
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